Assassination of Uthman

Uthman, the third caliph, who ruled from 644 to 656, was assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house in 656. This was initially a protest but escalated into a siege following the death of a protester. The protesters-turned-rebels had demanded a new caliph, which Uthman refused; on 17 June 656 (35 AH) protestors set the house on fire, made their way inside, and killed him.

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Following the deaths of Muhammad and the first caliph Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) in 632 and 634 respectively, Umar (r. 634–644) became the new caliph. Continuing the wars of conquest initiated by Abu Bakr, he brought about the almost complete collapse of Sasanian Persia. The Byzantine Empire was restricted to Anatolia and central North Africa.^[4] The armies of the conquest were settled in the conquered areas. In Iraq, the garrison towns of Basra and Kufa were established for the purpose. Fustat was founded in Egypt. Due to significant Arab population in Syria, Arab Muslim conquerors of the region settled in the already existing towns.^[5]

The conquests brought Muslims bounteous revenue and lands.^[6] Particularly in Iraq, the former crown-lands and the lands of the Persian aristocracy were now in Muslim hands. These became communal property administered by the state, although the soldiers protested, for they considered these lands their property. The revenue was distributed among the conquering armies.^[7][8] Umar also left the provincial administration to the respective governors, who ruled with considerable autonomy, and provincial surplus was spent on the settlers of the conquered territories instead of being sent to the capital.^[9] In some matters, such as military pay (ata) and administrative offices, Umar gave preference to those with precedence (sabiqa) in Islam and kept the late comers to the movement at bay, which to some extent resulted in social stratification and dissatisfaction among the holders of power and prestige in the old order.^[10]

After the assassination of Umar in 644 by Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz, a consultative assembly (shura) of the prominent companions of Muhammad, which included Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Ali, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Uthman, was made to choose a new caliph among Uthman and Ali. The assembly chose Ali unanimously but his refusal to follow previous caliphs ultimately resulted in Uthman being the new caliph.^[11] Although Uthman had been an early companion of Muhammad from the time of Mecca and had been devoted to the cause of Islam, he belonged to the Umayyad clan of the Quraysh tribe—a grouping of Meccan clans to which Muhammad and most of his prominent Meccan companions belonged.^[12][13] Umayyads had been staunch opponents of Muhammad during his ministry, and had converted to Islam only after the conquest of Mecca in 629 near the end of Muhammad's career.^[14][15] Muhammad, and later Abu Bakr and Umar, tried to win the Umayyads over to and incorporate them in the new order by awarding them gifts and important posts.^[14][15][16]

Dissatisfaction finally led to rebellion in Egypt, Kufa and Basra. When Egyptian rebels gathered near Medina, Uthman asked Ali to speak with them. The delegates of emigrants led by Ali and the delegates of Ansar led by Muhammad ibn Maslama met them and persuaded them to return. The delegates promised the rebels, in the name of the caliph, redress for all their grievances and agreed to act as guarantors. Due to this mediation and Uthman's commitment, the rebels backed down. As the rebel party was then departing for Egypt, they were overtaken by a courier from Medina. They discovered that the courier was carrying a letter which allegedly bore Caliph Uthman's official seal. The letter instructed the Egyptian governor to kill the rebel party once it arrived back home. Historians now consider the letter to have been issued not by Uthman, but his secretary, Marwan ibn al-Hakam. However, upon discovering the contents of the letter, the rebel party immediately returned to Medina and began the siege.^[17]

When Egyptian rebels returned to Medina, outraged by the official letter ordering the capital punishment of their leaders, Ali, as the guarantor of Uthman's promises, asked Uthman to speak with the rebels directly. Uthman denied any knowledge of the letter. But by this time the choices offered by the rebels amounted to only the resignation or abdication of Uthman and selection of another caliph. As turmoil broke out, Ali left. He seems to have broken with Uthman. Ali intervened only after being informed that the rebels were preventing the delivery of water to the besieged caliph.^[18] He tried to mitigate the severity of the siege by his insistence that Uthman should be allowed to have water.^[19] He also sent his two sons to protect Uthman's house when he was in danger of being attacked.^[20]

The situation worsened on Thursday, 16 June. As Uthman stood in his balcony, Niyar ibn Iyad al-Aslami, a companion of Muhammad, lectured him from outside and demanded his abdication. In response, one of Marwan's servants threw a stone killing Niyar. Outraged by Uthman's refusal to hand over the attacker, the rebels started preparations to attack.^[a] The next day, Friday 17 June, they attacked his house setting the doors on fire. Uthman ordered his defenders to lay down their arms and not fight as he did not want bloodshed. Nevertheless, some of them, including Marwan and Sa'id ibn al-As, refused and counter-attacked the rebels repelling them from one of the doors. A few of the defenders were killed in the skirmishes whereas Marwan and Sa'id were wounded. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and Hasan ibn Ali are also reported to have been wounded, although other reports indicate that the two had laid down their arms on Uthman's earlier orders.^[22]

While Uthman and his wife Na'ila bint al-Furafisa were alone in their room around the time of midday prayers, reading the Qur'an, some of the rebels climbed the surrounding homes and leaped into Uthman's. According to the family tradition of Amr ibn Hazm, after that, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr seized Uthman's beard and shook it. Uthman implored him to let it go, stressing that his father, Abu Bakr, would never have done anything like that. Muhammad retorted that Abu Bakr would have surely condemned Uthman if he had seen the deeds Uthman had committed. Then, as Uthman sought God's protection from Muhammad, Muhammad pierced Uthman's head with a blade.^[1][2] An alternative version transmitted from an eyewitness, Rayta, reports that Muhammad pulled back after grabbing Uthman's beard and tried to stop the other rebels.^[23] Madelung considers this version to be unreliable.^[23]

Kinana ibn Bishr al-Tujibi then joined in by piercing under Uthman's ear from behind with arrows and sword blows. According to a variant account, Kinana hit him with a metal rod and he fell on the ground. Sudan ibn Humran then killed him. In both accounts, Amr ibn al-Hamiq then sat on his chest and pierced his body a number of times. The house was then looted.^[24] Uthman's body was buried at night in the Jewish cemetery named Hashsh Kawkab, for the rebels (or, according to Wellhausen, Ansar) did not allow him be buried in the Muslim cemetery.^[1][25]

• Donner, Fred M. (2010). Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05097-6.
• El-Hibri, Tayeb (2010). Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231150828.
• Hawting, Gerald R. (2000). The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661–750 (second ed.). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-24072-7.
• Hinds, Martin (1971). "Kufan Political Alignments and their Background in the Mid-Seventh Century A.D.". International Journal of Middle East Studies. 2 (4): 346–367. doi:10.1017/S0020743800001306. JSTOR 162722. S2CID 155455942.
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• Humphreys, R. Stephen, ed. (1990). The History of al-Ṭabarī, Volume XV: The Crisis of the Early Caliphate: The Reign of ʿUthmān, A.D. 644–656/A.H. 24–35. SUNY Series in Near Eastern Studies. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-0154-5.
• Kennedy, Hugh (2023). The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East from the 6th to the 11th Century (third ed.). Abingdon, Oxon and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-36690-2.
• Levi Della Vida, G. & Khoury, R.G. (2000). "Ut̲h̲mān b. ʿAffān". In Bearman, P. J.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume X: T–U. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 946–949. ISBN 978-90-04-11211-7.
• Lewis, Bernard (2002). Arabs in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191647161.
• Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64696-0.
• Poonawala, I.K. (1982). "'Alī b. Abī Ṭāleb I. Life". Encyclopaedia Iranica (online ed.).
• Wellhausen, Julius (1927). The Arab Kingdom and Its Fall. Translated by Margaret Graham Weir. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. OCLC 752790641.

Uthman The Generous (al-Ghani)
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