Countries that host a Canadian Embassy or High Commission
Interests section and other representations
Countries that do not host Canadian diplomatic missions
Canada
The foreign relations of Canada are Canada's relations with other governments and nations. Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions.[2][3][4] Canada is known for its strong commitment to international peace and security, as well as being a mediator in conflicts,[5] and for providing aid to developing countries.[6][7] The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-20th century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts.[8]
Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image.[9][10] Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations.[11] Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined.[12] The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through NATO, rather than directly through the UN.[13] Canada has faced controversy over its involvement in some foreign countries, notably the 1993 Somalia affair.[14] Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations.[15]
The foreign policies of Canada and its predecessor colonies were under British control until the 20th century. This included wars with the United States in 1775-1783 and 1812–1815. Economic ties with the U.S. were always close. Political tensions arose in the 19th century from anti-British sentiment in the U.S. in the 1860s. Boundary issues caused diplomatic disputes resolved in the 1840s over the Maine boundary and in the early 20th century over the Alaska boundary. There is ongoing discussion regarding the Arctic. Canada-US relations have been friendly in the 20th and 21st centuries.[29]
Canada participated in Britain's wars, especially the Boer war, World War I and World War II. However, there was a bitter dispute between Francophone and Anglophone Canada during the First World War. Canada had its own seat in the League of Nations but played a small role in world affairs until the 1940s. Since then it has been active in NATO, the United Nations, and in promoting its middle-power status into an active role in world affairs.[30]
Administration
In 1982, responsibility for trade was added with the creation of the Department of External Affairs and International Trade. In 1995, the name was changed to Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade.
Canada has often carried out its foreign policy through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions (e.g.: the Royal Canadian Mounted Police International Peace Operations Branch [31] or deployments of personnel by the Correctional Service of Canada[32]). Under the aegis of Canadian foreign policy, various departments and agencies conduct their own international relations and outreach activities. For example, the Canadian Forces and the Department of National Defence conduct defence diplomacy in support of national interests, including through the deployment of Canadian Defence Attachés,[33] participation in bilateral and multilateral military forums (e.g., the System of Cooperation Among the American Air Forces), ship and aircraft visits, military training and cooperation,[34] and other such outreach and relationship-building efforts.
There are two major elements of Canadian foreign relations, Canada-US relations and multilateralism.
Greg Donaghy, of Canada's Department of Foreign Affairs, argues:
Since taking power in 2006, Prime Minister Harper's government has clearly abandoned the liberal internationalism that had so often characterized Ottawa's approach to world affairs, replacing it with a new emphasis on realist notions of national interest, enhanced capabilities, and Western democratic values.[35][relevant?]
Former Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton at the Haiti Ministerial Preparatory Conference addressing earthquake relief in Montreal, 25 January 2010
Canada's foreign aid was administered by the Canadian International Development Agency, which provided aid and assistance to other countries around the world through various methods. In March 2013 CIDA ceased to exist when it was folded into DFAIT, creating DFATD.[36] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises. However a growing focus on development, defence, and diplomacy in recent decades has produced a concentration of foreign aid funding to countries determined to be security risks to Canadian policy. For example, in 2004–2005 the largest recipients of Canada's official developmental assistance were Afghanistan and Iraq, two nations in conflict with the United States of America and its allies at the time. The structural emphasis on security and industry development has contributed to a fixed foreign policy that generally fails to consider global health and international social and economic inequalities.[37] According to the OECD, 2019 official development assistance from Canada increased 0.5% to US$4.7 billion.[38][failed verification]
In addition, although Canada's foreign aid policies has been moulded with the intentions to be in accordance to the Millennium Development Goals, its focus on human security has slowly shifted away as new policy developments arose. The foreign aid provided by the country became less "people-centered" and less health-related. Canada's contributions have been quite inconsistent with regards to human security, which indicates that the reputation that the country has built throughout the years, in fact, exceeds the country's actual record. Canada's contributions internationally have been detrimental and crucial but it needs redirecting back to its original goals.[37]
Federalism and foreign relations
The provinces have a high level of freedom to operate internationally, dating to 1886 and Quebec's first representative to France, Hector Fabre. Alberta has had representatives abroad, starting with Alberta House in London (37 Hill Street), since 1948, and British Columbia around 25 years before that.[39] By 1984, Quebec had offices in ten countries including eight in the United States and three in other Canadian provinces while Ontario had thirteen delegations in seven countries.[40]
Diplomatic relations
List of countries which Canada maintains diplomatic relations with:
Cameroon and Canada have established diplomatic ties on 7 December 1961[77] with three agreements and four protocoles signed in 1965. Both countries share the use of English and French as the two official languages as well as memberships in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and The Commonwealth.
Two industrial, open-pit gold mines in Mali, Sadiola and Yatela, are partly owned by Canadian mining company IAMGOLD Corporation, and financed in part by Canada's public pension funds. Together, they contributed to one-half of Mali's industrial gold production during 1996–2007.
In 2005, there were 73 Canadian-owned mining properties in Mali. At least thirteen junior Canadian mining companies held exploration licences in Mali in 2009.
Over the period 2001–2005, Canadian mining assets in Mali represented 31% of Mali's total stock of foreign direct investment.
Malian-Canadian immigrants made up 0.0027% of the Canadian population in 2006.
Canada has an office of the high commission in Lusaka.
Zambia has a high commission in Ottawa.
Canada currently has a development assistance program in Zambia, which is focused on the health sector to provide Zambians with equal access to quality health care. Canada and Zambia are currently in the process of negotiating a Foreign Investment Promotion and Protection Agreement.[94]
Antigua & Barbuda and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1967.[97][98]
Antigua and Barbuda is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States and has a consulate-general in Toronto.
The Canadian High Commission in Bridgetown, Barbados is accredited to Antigua and Barbuda.[99]
The Commonwealth of The Bahamas and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
The Canadian High Commission in Kingston, Jamaica is accredited to The Bahamas. Canada has an honorary consul in Nassau.
The Bahamas is represented by their High Commission in Ottawa.[100]
The nations of Belize and Canada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
Belize is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Canada is accredited to Belize from its embassy in Guatemala, City, Guatemala.
Canada has maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens. Canada-Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar. Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission. Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada's representative in Cuba. Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959.
Canada and the Commonwealth of Dominica are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, and the United Nations.
Canada is accredited to Dominica from its high commission in Bridgetown, Barbados.
Dominica is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Greenland (within the Kingdom of Denmark), and Canada are connected through indigenous culture and language, which is shared by the Inuit across Arctic Canada and also Alaska.[102]
Both nations maintain cooperation and good relations through the Arctic Council and under the auspices of the Arctic Coastal States. In addition, both act as close partners at: Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC), Nordic Council, Nordic Atlantic Cooperation, and the West Nordic Foundation.
Through the expansion of self-government in Greenland since 1979 both nations, but especially the administration at Nuuk have attached strategic importance to their bilateral relations with Canada in the areas of the politics, economic and trade relations and in the fields of education, science and culture.[103]
Canada maintains an embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark, and a consulate in capital city Nuuk.
Greenland maintains a non-resident office in Washington, D.C., with a Head of Representation.
Canada and Grenada are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
Canada is accredited to Grenada from its high commission in Bridgetown, Barbados.
Grenada is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States.
Canada and the Co-Operative Republic of Guyana are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
In 1964 Canada opened the Commission of Canada in Georgetown, Guyana. In 1966 it became a Canadian High Commission.
There is a Guyanese High Commission in Ottawa and a consulate in Toronto.
Canada and Jamaica are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
Since 4 March 1963, Canada has a high commission in Kingston.
Despite the fact that historic ties between the two nations have been coldly dormant, relations between Canada and Mexico have positively changed in recent years; seeing as both countries brokered the North American Free Trade Agreement. Although on different sides of the Cold War spectrum (Canada was a member of NATO while Mexico was in the Non-Aligned Movement, the two countries were still allies in World War II.)
Canada has an embassy in Mexico City, a consulate-general in Monterrey and a consulate in Guadalajara, plus consular agency offices in seven resort communities.[106]
Mexico has an embassy in Ottawa, with consulates general in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver, and consulates in Calgary and Leamington.[107]
The Canadian government announced in February 2009 that it was adding Peru to its list of preferred countries to receive foreign aid. This list includes 18 countries and the West Bank and Caribbean.[112]
Canada and the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Organization of American States, and the United Nations.
Relations between Canada and the United States span more than two centuries, marked by a shared British colonial heritage, conflict during the early years of the U.S., and the eventual development of one of the most successful international relationships in the modern world. The most serious breach in the relationship was the War of 1812, which saw an American invasion of then British North America and counter invasions from British-Canadian forces. The border was demilitarized after the war and, apart from minor raids, has remained peaceful. Military collaboration began during the World Wars and continued throughout the Cold War, despite Canadian doubts about certain American policies. A high volume of trade and migration between the U.S. and Canada has generated closer ties, despite continued Canadian fears of being overwhelmed by its neighbour, which is ten times larger in population, wealth and debt.[113]
Canada and the United States are currently the world's largest trading partners, share the world's longest shared border,[114] and have significant interoperability within the defence sphere.
In February 1948 there was a Canadian consulate-general in Caracas and a Venezuelan consulate-general in Montreal. In that year the Venezuelan Consul General, on behalf of the government of Venezuela, made a rapprochement with Canada in order to open direct diplomatic representations between the two countries;[115] but the Canadian government delayed the opening of a diplomatic mission in Venezuela because of the lack of enough suitable personnel to staff a Canadian mission in Venezuela and the impossibility of Canada beginning a representation in Venezuela in that year without considering a policy of expansion of Canadian representation abroad.[116]
In the interest of protecting Canadian trade with Venezuela and considering the difficulties for business in being without a Canadian representation in Caracas, Canada was pushed to accept the Venezuelan offer of exchanging diplomatic missions.[117] Finally Canada elevated the former office of the Canadian Consulate General in Caracas to the category of embassy in 1953.[118]
Venezuela established an embassy in Canada in 1952.[119] Since then there have been good commercial relations between the two countries, especially in technology, oil and gas industry, telecommunications and others. In June 2019, Canada closed its embassy in Caracas due to diplomatic visas unable to be renewed under President Maduro's government.[120]
Venezuela has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.
Since 2003, China has emerged as Canada's second largest trading partner, passing Britain and Japan. China now accounts for approximately six percent of Canada's total world trade. According to a recent study by the Fraser Institute, China replaced Japan as Canada's third-largest export market in 2007, with CA$9.3 billion flowing into China in 2007. Between 1998 and 2007, exports to China grew by 272 percent, but only represented about 1.1 per cent of China's total imports. In 2007, Canadian imports of Chinese products totalled C$38.3 billion. Between 1998 and 2007, imports from China grew by almost 400 percent.[122] Leading commodities in the trade between Canada and China include chemicals, metals, industrial and agricultural machinery and equipment, wood products, and fish products.[123]
Trade tariffs and other incidents in 2019, including the arrest of top Huawei executive Meng Wanzhou[124] have frozen relations between the two countries.
In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including Canada, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang internment camps.[125]
In 2004, bilateral trade between India and Canada was at about C$2.45 billion.[126] However, India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test led to connections between the two countries being frozen, with allegations that India broke the terms of the Colombo Plan.[127] Although Jean Chrétien and Roméo LeBlanc both visited India in the late 1990s, relations were again halted after the Pokhran-II tests.[127]
In 2023, Justin Trudeau accused the Indian government of involvement in the killing of a Sikh-Canadian leader, Hardeep Singh Nijjar on Canadian soil. “Any involvement of a foreign government in the killing of a Canadian citizen on Canadian soil is an unacceptable violation of our sovereignty,” the Prime Minister stated to the House of Commons.[128]
Canada has a high commission in New Delhi and has a consulate-general in Mumbai.
India has a high commission in Ottawa and consulates-general in Toronto and Vancouver.
Canadian-Iranian relations date back to 1955, up to which point the Canadian Consular and Commercial Affairs in Iran was handled by the British Embassy. A Canadian diplomatic mission was constructed in Tehran in 1959 and raised to embassy status in 1961. Due to rocky relations after the Iranian Revolution, Iran did not establish an embassy in Canada until 1991 when its staff, which had been living in a building on Roosevelt Avenue in Ottawa's west end, moved into 245 Metcalfe Street in the Centretown neighbourhood of Ottawa which was upgraded to embassy status, however in 2012, Canada severed all diplomatic ties with Iran in regard to Iran's treatment of human rights.
At the United Nations in 1947, Canada was one of the thirty-three countries that voted in favour of the creation of a Jewish homeland. Canada delayed granting de facto recognition to Israel until December 1948, and finally gave full de jure recognition to the new nation on 11 May 1949, only after it was admitted into the United Nations (UN). A week later, Avraham Harman became Israel's first consul general in Canada. In September 1953, the Canadian Embassy opened in Tel Aviv and Israeli Ambassador to Canada, Michael Comay, was appointed, although a non-resident Canadian Ambassador to Israel was not appointed until 1958.
The two countries enjoy an amicable companionship in many areas; diplomatic relations between both countries officially began in 1950 with the opening of the Japanese consulate in Ottawa. In 1929, Canada opened its Tokyo legation, the first in Asia;[131] and in that same year, Japan its Ottawa consulate to legation form.[132]
Canada has an embassy in Tokyo and a consulate-general in Nagoya.
Japan has an embassy in Ottawa and consulates-general in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver.
Canada established diplomatic relations with Lebanon in 1954, when Canada deployed "Envoy Extraordinaire" to Beirut. In 1958, Canada sent its first ambassador. The embassy was closed in 1985 and reopened in January 1995. Lebanon opened a consulate in Ottawa in 1946. A consulate-general replaced the consulate in 1949, and it was upgraded to full embassy status in 1958.
Canada is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Ulaanbaatar.
Mongolia has an embassy in Ottawa.
Though Canada and Mongolia established diplomatic ties in 1973, ad hoc linkages and minor activities occurred between the two countries mainly through the Canada-Mongolia Society, which disbanded in 1980. When Mongolia formed a democratic government in 1991 after the collapse of the Soviet Union, Canada began to support Mongolia with donor activities through the International Development Research Centre, Canadian International Development Agency and several non-governmental organizations.[139]
Canada and North Korea share very little trade due to the destabilizing element North Korea has caused in the Asia Pacific region. Canada is represented by the Canadian Ambassador resident in Seoul, and North Korea is represented through its office at the UN in New York City.
Saudi Arabia is Canada's second largest trade partner among the seven countries of the Arabian Peninsula,[146] totalling more than $2 billion in trade in 2005,[147] nearly double its value in 2002, trade totalled $3.8 in 2014.[148] Canada chiefly imports petroleum, and oil from Saudi Arabia, while The largest exporting good are such as cereals, railway/tramway equipment; machinery equipment and paper in 2010.[149]
Thailand has an embassy in Ottawa, consulates general in Toronto, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton and Montreal, and Thai Trade Centre Offices in Vancouver and Toronto.[158]
Belarus had an embassy in Ottawa but was closed as of September 1, 2021, as a result of Canada's condemnation of the forced grounding of Ryanair Flight 4978[163][164]
Canada is accredited to Belarus from its embassy in Warsaw, Poland.
Belgium has an embassy in Ottawa, two consulates (in Montreal and Toronto), and four honorary consuls (in Edmonton, Halifax, Vancouver and Winnipeg) located in Canada. Belgium's three regions (Wallonia, Flanders and Brussels) each have their own offices in the Montreal consulate. Wallonia also has a second office in the Toronto consulate, which also represents Flanders and Brussels.
Canada has an embassy in Brussels. Canada also has an honorary consulate in Antwerp, and Quebec maintains its own separate delegation in Brussels. The Canadian delegations to the European Union and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization are located in Belgium, as Belgium houses the headquarters of each. Luxembourg is often dealt with in tandem to Belgium.
Bulgaria has an embassy in Ottawa and a consulate-general in Toronto.[166][167]
Canada has an honorary consul in Sofia, and is represented through its embassy in Bucharest (Romania) for diplomatic matters. Both countries are members of NATO.
Canadian bilateral political relations with Cyprus stemmed initially from Cypriot Commonwealth membership at independence in 1960 (that had followed a guerrilla struggle with Britain). These relations quickly expanded in 1964 when Canada became a major troop contributor to UNFICYP. The participation lasted for the next 29 years, during which 50,000 Canadian soldiers served and 28 were killed. In large measure Canadian relations with Cyprus continue to revolve around support for the ongoing efforts of the UN, G8 and others to resolve the island's divided status.
Finland has an embassy in Ottawa and 13 honorary consuls (from west to east) in Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Regina, Winnipeg, Thunder Bay, Sault Ste. Marie, Timmins, Sudbury, Toronto, Montreal, Quebec City and Halifax.
With their 13 consulates across Canada, Finland is the most represented foreign country in Canada.
Until 2005 Canada's embassy was in Bonn, but in April 2005 a new embassy opened in Berlin. Canada also operates consulates in Munich, Düsseldorf and Hamburg.
The provinces of Ontario and Alberta have representatives in Germany, co-located in the consulates. Quebec runs a stand-alone bureau in Munich, with an "antenne culturelle" office in Berlin.
In addition to its embassy in Ottawa, Germany maintains consulates in Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Additional diplomats responsible for specialized files are also accredited from Washington.
Although the Roman Catholic Church has been territoriality established in Canada since the founding of New France in the early 17th century, Holy See–Canada relations were only officially established under the papacy of Paul VI in the 1960s.
Canada has an embassy in Rome accredited to the Holy See.
Hungary has an embassy in Ottawa, a consulate general in Toronto and six honorary consuls (from west to east) in Vancouver (two), Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg and Montreal.[178][179][180]
Iceland's first honorary consulate was established in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1942. In May 2001, Iceland opened an embassy in Ottawa and upgrade its Winnipeg mission to an official consulate.[181][182]
In November 2001, Canada opened an embassy in Reykjavík, before then it was represented by their embassy in Oslo (Norway) and an honorary consul in Reykjavík.[183]
Canada and Ireland enjoy friendly relations, the importance of these relations centres on the history of Irish migration to Canada. Roughly 4 million Canadians have Irish ancestors, or approximately 14% of Canada's population.
Canada is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels (Belgium)and an honorary consul in Luxembourg City.[191]
Luxembourg is represented in Canada through its embassy in Washington, D.C. (US), and honorary consuls (in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver).[192]
Canada's Luxembourg relations are conducted through Canada's embassy in Belgium.[193]
Canada is accredited to Malta from its embassy in Rome, Italy and maintains an honorary consul in Valletta.
Malta is accredited to Canada from its embassy in Washington, D.C., United States. The Ambassador of Malta to the United States also serves as High Commissioner of Malta to Canada.
Malta has a consulate general in Toronto and four honorary consuls in (from west to east) Vancouver, Edmonton, Laval and St. John's.[194]
Canada and Russia benefit from extensive cooperation on trade and investment, energy, democratic development and governance, security and counter-terrorism, northern issues, and cultural and academic exchanges.
Both countries have strong commitments to peacekeeping, UN reform, development assistance, environmental protection, sustainable development, and the promotion and protection of human rights.[dubious – discuss] In additional, there are more than 300,000 Canadians of Swedish descent.[207]
Sweden has an embassy in Ottawa and ten honorary consulates in Calgary, Edmonton, Fredericton, Halifax, Montreal, Quebec City, Regina, Toronto, Vancouver and Winnipeg.
The first Swiss consulate opened in Montreal in 1875.
Canada has an embassy in Bern and a United Nations mission in Geneva.[208]
Switzerland has an embassy in Ottawa, and consulates general (in Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver) and honorary consuls (in Calgary, Halifax, Quebec City and Winnipeg).[209]
Both countries are full members of the Francophonie.
Diplomatic relations were established between Canada and Ukraine on 27 January 1992.[210] Canada opened its embassy in Kyiv[211] In April 1992, and the Embassy of Ukraine in Ottawa opened in October of that same year,[212] paid for mostly by donations from the Ukrainian-Canadian community. Ukraine opened a consulate general in Toronto in 1993[212][213] and announced plans to open another in Edmonton in 2008.[214]
London and Ottawa enjoy cooperative and intimate contact, which has grown deeper over the years; the two countries are related through history, the Commonwealth of Nations, and their sharing of the same Head of State and monarch.
Canada and New Zealand are two of fifteen commonwealth realms, members of: the Commonwealth of Nations, the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership, the G20, and the United Nations.
New Zealand and Canada have a longstanding relationship that has been fostered by both countries' shared history and culture, by their membership the Commonwealth of Nations and links between residents of both countries. The two countries have a common Head of State, currently King Charles III. New Zealand and Canada also have links through business or trade relations, the United Nations, the Commonwealth and mutual treaty agreements. New Zealand-Canada relations are important to both countries.
One important difference between Canadian and American foreign policy has been in relations with communist governments. Canada established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China (13 October 1970) long before the Americans did (1 January 1979). It also has maintained trade and diplomatic relations with communist Cuba, despite pressures from the United States.
Countries on the Canadian Automatic Firearms Country Control List
Canadian Government guidance for export controls on weapons systems is published by Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada.[216][217] Automatic Firearms Country Control List, comprises a list of approved export nations which include as of 2014; (Albania, Australia, Belgium, Botswana, Bulgaria, Colombia, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom, and the United States).
Selected dates of diplomatic representation abroad
Constable Lorant Haged, Royal Canadian Mounted Police and instructor at the leadership and management course, looks at a target after the Afghan National Police (ANP) ceased fire at a 9mm familirization range 3 Dec.. The ANP are attending a six-month Leadership and Management course where they will also take a criminal Investigation course, leadership and management classes and Rule of Law. The intent of the school is teach the ANP officers and leaders at an advanced level of training that will help them become more effective in running police sub-stations.
Canada is and has been a strong supporter of multilateralism. The country is one of the world's leading peacekeepers, sending soldiers under the U.N. authority around the world.[218] Canadian former Minister of Foreign Affairs and subsequent Prime Minister, Lester B. Pearson, is credited for his contributions to modern international peacekeeping, for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957.[219] Canada is committed to disarmament, and is especially noted for its leadership in the 1997 Convention in Ottawa on the prohibition of the use, stockpiling, production and transfer of anti-personnel mines.[220]
In the last century Canada has made efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a "middle power" able to work with large and small nations alike. This was demonstrated during the Suez Crisis when Lester B. Pearson mollified the tension by proposing peacekeeping efforts and the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts.[221]
Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, but does join in sanctioned operations such as the first Gulf War, Afghanistan and Libya. It participated with its NATO and OAS allies in the Kosovo Conflict and in Haiti respectively.
Canada is working on setting up military bases around the world, while reducing aid and diplomatic efforts.[223][224] In the late 90s, Canada actively promoted the notion of human security as an alternative to business-as-usual approaches to foreign aid. However, by invoking the "three Ds" (defense, diplomacy, and development) as the fundamental basis for Canadian foreign policy, and then implementing this in a manner that conforms more to military security and trade interests, Canada has successfully distanced itself from the humanitarian objectives of foreign aid, with the human security goal far from being achieved. [225] Under the Harper government, emphasis on promoting Canada's military presence internationally has included an effort to rebrand Canada historically as a "warrior nation", in large measure to counter the image of only supporting peacekeeping and multilateralism.[226]
Many Caribbean Community countries turn to Canada as a valued partner.[227] Canadians, particularly Canadian banks and utility companies play an important economic role in the development of former British West Indies colonies. Efforts to improve trade have included the idea of concluding a free trade agreement to replace the 1986 bilateral CARIBCAN agreement. At various times, several Caribbean countries have also considered joining Canadian Confederation as new provinces or territories, although no Caribbean nation has implemented such a proposal. Note that many Caribbean countries are also involved in the Commonwealth of Nations, below.
Canada maintains close links to the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms, with which Canada has strong historic ties and shares a monarch. It also remains a member of the Commonwealth.
Secretary Kerry Chats With Arctic Council Chairman Leona Aglukkaq, Nunavut Territory Premier Peter Taptuna, and Northwest Territory Premier Robert McLeod in Iqaluit, Canada
A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages through the Arctic Archipelago). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait (international waters). Canadians were incensed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker Manhattan through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, both without asking for Canadian permission.[229][230] In 1970, the Canadian government enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-nautical-mile (190 km) zone. In response, the Americans in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada.... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation," which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada." However the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Essentially, the Americans agreed to ask for the consent of the Government of Canada without conceding that they were obliged to. In January 2006, David Wilkins, the American ambassador to Canada, said his government opposes Stephen Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters.[231]
Along with other nations in the Arctic Council, Canada, Sweden, Iceland, Norway, Finland, Denmark and Russia, the maritime boundaries in the far north will be decided after countries have completed their submissions, due in 2012. Russia has made an extensive claim based on the Russian position that everything that is an extension of the Lomonosov Ridge should be assigned to Russia.[232][233] Their submission had been rejected when first submitted by the United Nations in 2001.[234]
In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus said the US "view Canada’s claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law."[235]
In December 2024, Canada outlined plans to address growing global interest in the Arctic, driven by climate change and geopolitical tensions, including Russia’s actions in Ukraine. Recognizing climate change as the central threat, Canada committed to strengthening regional alliances, particularly with the U.S., while enhancing military defenses and asserting sovereignty over the Northwest Passage. It also aimed to resolve territorial disputes with the U.S. and Denmark, revive the Arctic ambassador role, and expand diplomatic ties in Alaska and Greenland. Indigenous leaders, though supportive, stressed the urgent need for better infrastructure in Arctic communities to bolster sovereignty and resilience.[236]
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^"Minister Joly speaks with Niue's Premier and Foreign Affairs Minister" (Press release). Global Affairs Canada. 13 September 2023. Retrieved 9 December 2023. September 13, 2023 ... Yesterday, the Honourable Mélanie Joly, Minister of Foreign Affairs, spoke with Niue's Premier and Foreign Affairs Minister, the Honourable Dalton Tagelagi, to mark the establishment of diplomatic relations between Canada and Niue.
^Parraguez, Maria-Luisa (26 March 2008). "Chile's Foreign Policy towards North America". Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the ISA's 49th ANNUAL CONVENTION, BRIDGING MULTIPLE DIVIDES, Hilton San Francisco, SAN FRANCISCO, CA, USA.
^James Tagg reports that Canadian university students have a profound fear that "Canadian culture, and likely Canadian sovereignty, will be overwhelmed." Tagg, "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism," The History Teacher, Vol. 37, No. 3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 in JSTOR; J. L. Granatstein. Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997).
^"USA and Canada". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 15 September 2018.
^For a detailed discussion of Canada's early diplomatic engagement with Canada, see Bohdan Kordan, "Canadian Ukrainian Relations: Articulating the Canadian Interest," in L. Hajda, ed. (1996), Ukraine in the World: Studies in the International Relations and Security Structure of a Newly Independent State. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
^The capital of Ukraine is officially recognized by both the Canadian and Ukrainian governments as Kyiv in all English communications (although not in French).
^Jerry M. Spiegel & Robert Huish (2009): Canadian foreign aid for global health: Human security opportunity lost, Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, 15:3, 60–84.
^McKay, I., & Swift, J. (2012). Warrior Nation: Rebranding Canada in an Age of Anxiety. Between the Lines.
^"Carrington: lauds Canada as 'special friend' of region". Stabroek Newspaper. In brief remarks at the signing, Secretary-General Carrington expressed appreciation to the Government of Canada for its support, and pointed out that over the years "Canada had proven to be a "special friend" of the Caribbean at the regional and bilateral levels." "Our relations with the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) have grown to the extent that "it is now considered to be a highly valued international development partner for the region." Among the many important areas in which CIDA has provided grant assistance to the region has been that of trade and competitiveness, a most vital area as the region seeks to secure its place in the international economic and trading arena," the release quoted the Secretary-General as saying.
^Matthew Carnaghan, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006) at [1]Archived 9 February 2010 at the Wayback Machine; 2006 news at [2]
Bothwell, Robert. Canada and the United States (1992) online
Bothwell, Robert. The big chill: Canada and the Cold War (1998) online
Bothwell, Robert. Alliance and illusion : Canada and the world, 1945-1984 (2007) online
Bothwell, Robert and Jean Daudelin eds. Canada Among Nations: 100 Years of Canadian Foreign Policy (2009)
Boucher, Jean-Christophe. "Yearning for a progressive research program in Canadian foreign policy." International Journal 69.2 (2014): 213–228. online commentary H-DIPLO
Bouka, Yolande, et al. "Is Canada's Foreign Policy Really Feminist? Analysis and Recommendations." Policy 13 (2021). online
Bow, Brian, and Andrea Lane, eds. Canadian Foreign Policy: Reflections on a Field in Transition (2020) excerpt
Bugailiskis, Alex, and Andrés Rozental, eds. Canada Among Nations, 2011-2012: Canada and Mexico's Unfinished Agenda (2012) further details
Carnaghan, Matthew, Allison Goody, "Canadian Arctic Sovereignty" (Library of Parliament: Political and Social Affairs Division, 26 January 2006)
Chapnick, Adam, and Christopher J. Kukucha, eds. The Harper Era in Canadian Foreign Policy: Parliament, Politics, and Canada’s Global Posture (UBC Press, 2016).
Collins, Jeffrey F. "Defence Procurement and Canadian Foreign Policy." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 275–295.
Congressional Research Service. Canada-U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) 2021 Report, by an agency of the U.S. government; not copyright; Updated February 10, 2021.
Currie, Philip J., 'Canada and Ireland: A Political and Diplomatic History [Vancouver: UBC Press, 2020]
Eayrs, James. In Defence of Canada. (5 vols. University of Toronto Press, 1964–1983) the standard history
Fox, Annette Baker. Canada in World Affairs (Michigan State University Press, 1996)
Kirk, John M. and Peter McKenna; Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy UP of Florida (1997).
Kirton, John and Don Munton, eds. Cases and Readings in Canadian Foreign Policy Since World War II (1992) 24 episodes discussed by experts
Kukucha, Christopher J. "Neither adapting nor innovating: the limited transformation of Canadian foreign trade policy since 1984." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal (2018): 1–15.
McCormick, James M. "Pivoting toward Asia: Comparing the Canadian and American Policy Shifts." American Review of Canadian Studies 46.4 (2016): 474–495.
McCullough, Colin, and Robert Teigrob, eds. Canada and the United Nations: Legacies, Limits, Prospects (2017).
Melnyk, George. Canada and the New American Empire: War and Anti-War University of Calgary Press, 2004, highly critical
Michaud, Nelson. "Balancing Interests and Constraints: The Role of Provinces in the Shaping of Canadian Foreign Policy." in Political Turmoil in a Tumultuous World (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 77–104.
Miller, Ronnie. Following the Americans to the Persian Gulf: Canada, Australia, and the Development of the New World Order (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994)
Molot, Maureen Appel. "Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature", International Journal of Canadian Studies (Spring-Fall 1990) 1#2 pp 77–96.
Nossal, Kim Richard et al. International Policy and Politics in Canada (2010), university textbook; online 1989 edition
Paris, Roland. "Are Canadians still liberal internationalists? Foreign policy and public opinion in the Harper era." International Journal 69.3 (2014): 274–307. online
Rochlin, James. Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America (University of British Columbia Press, 1994)
Tiessen, Rebecca, and Heather A. Smith. "Canada’s ‘Feminist’ Foreign Policy Under the Harper Conservatives (2006–2015) and Trudeau Liberals (2015–2019) in Global Perspective." in The Palgrave Handbook of Canada in International Affairs (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2021) pp. 117-139.
Wildeman, Jeremy. "Assessing Canada’s foreign policy approach to the Palestinians and Israeli-Palestinian peacebuilding, 1979–2019." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 27.1 (2021): 62-80. online
Wildeman, Jeremy. "The Middle East in Canadian foreign policy and national identity formation." International Journal 76.3 (2021): 359-383. online
Wilson, Robert R. and David R. Deener; Canada-United States Treaty Relations (Duke University Press, 1963)
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