Share to:

 

Makossa

Makossa
Stylistic origins
Cultural origins20th century, Douala, Cameroon
Subgenres
Other topics

Makossa is a music genre originating in Douala, Littoral Region, Cameroon in the late 20th century.[1] Like much other music of Sub-Saharan Africa, it uses strong electric bass rhythms and prominent brass. Makossa uses guitar accompaniments, in the forms of solo and rhythm guitar, with a main singer (lead vocalist) and a choir of backup singers, with the focus being on the texture of the guitar, the role it plays in the song, the relationship between it and other instruments (including the bass, drum set, horns, synthesizers, etc.), the lyrical content and languages sung as well as their relationship (as far as timbre goes) with the music, the uses of various percussion instruments, including the bottle, the groove of the bass as well as the drums, and the use of technical knowledge and microprocessors to make the music.[2] It is in common time (4/4) for the vast majority of cases. Language-wise, it is typically sung in French, Duala or Pidgin English.[3] Tempo-wise, it is typically in between 130 and 170 BPM. It traditionally consisted of guitar-picking techniques that borrows from bikutsi; with a guitar-structure of a guitar switching from solo to rhythm from assiko; supplanted with complex bass grooves, and gradually picked up on brass section, from funk and later in the 70s, string section, from disco. It along with this acquired the sebene from Congolese rumba. In the 1980s makossa had a wave of mainstream success across Africa and to a lesser extent abroad. It is considered to be one of the greatest Cameroonian and even African "adventures" as a music.[2]

Makossa, which in some accounts is said to mean "the contortions" and others to mean "(I) dance" in the Duala language,[4] originated from a Duala dance called the kossa. Emmanuel Nelle Eyoum started using the refrain kossa kossa in his songs with his group "Los Calvinos". The style began to take shape in the 1950s though the first recordings were not seen until a decade later. There were artists such as Eboa Lotin, François Missé Ngoh and especially Manu Dibango, who popularised makossa throughout the world with his song "Soul Makossa" in 1972. It is the most sampled African song, in history to date.[5] The chant from the song, mamako, mamasa, maka makossa, was later used by Michael Jackson in "Wanna Be Startin' Somethin'" in 1983. In 2007, Rihanna similarly sampled it too for "Don't Stop The Music".[5] Many other performers followed suit. The 2010 World cup also brought makossa to the international stage as Shakira sampled the Golden Sounds popular song "Zamina mina (Zangalewa)".[6]

Etymology

The word "makossa" is originated from the Duala words "m'a" and "kossa". "Kossa" is a term that was a term at the edge of neologism expressed initially as a cry of exhortation, and as "a kind of swear word that has the status of a stimulus, a spur. In the book Le Makossa: une musique africaine moderne, a passage including this quote is written as follows:

"En effet, le terme Makossa, dérive de « m'a kossa » qui veut dire littéralement en langue duala et au pluriel les contorsions ; au singulier « di kossa » la contorsion. Ce vocable « Kossa » est un terme à la lisière du néologisme et du cri d'exhortation, mieux, une sorte de juron ayant statut de stimulus, d'aiguillon."[2]

In the same book, the author explains that according to Remy Minko Mba (late journalist):[7]

"Kossa is a kind of exclamation, a cry of joy that is usually uttered to give more vigor, [and] more energy to the dance."

In the original French version, a passage including the translated version of this quote reads:

"Remy MINKO MBA poursuit: « Kossa est une sorte d'exclamation, un cri de joie que l'on pousse généralement pour donner plus de vigeur, plus d'énergie à la danse. Il s'agit donc d'une sorte de stimulus qui doit nécessairement provoquer une réaction positive »."[2]

In Cameroonian Pidgin English, a cognate that could one of the ultimate underlying origins of the word "makossa" is: "kosh". One of the definitions of this word is: "to insult, abuse, curse, swear at."[8]

Origins

Before "makossa" as a word existed, the genre of music known as makossa today emerged in the late 20th century.[1] It was based on the currents of musical influence in the city where it was born.

The term makossa was founded by Nelle Eyoum.[9] He did this when casually shouting out "kossa kossa" to children who would dance in reaction. This is akin to shouts of exhortation to children in daily life.[10] This was to stimulate partners on the dance floor to redouble or increase in fervency in the dance, especially during the frenzied part of the composition, commonly called "secousse" or "balle à terre".[11]

But even though Nelle Eyoum coined the term, they were others who played a significant role in the developing of the music.[12] These include musicians such as Lobe Lobe Rameau, Mouelle Guillaume, Ebanda Manfred, Tibo Essombe, Epee Mbende Richard, Eitel Tobbo, Ebolo Emmanuel, Charles Lembe, Ruth Soppo, Jacqueline Ewondo, Tapelon, Epata, Eyoum Decca, Willy le Pape, etc.[13]

Early development

Makossa developed, expanded and evolved into one of most popular and ubiquitous modern music genres in Cameroon.[14] Its influence shaped and altered the musical discourse in the country for more than half a century, so much so that its reach expanded far beyond the nation's borders to other parts of West and Central Africa.[15] It is the rhizomic evolutionary offshoot of the musical confluence arising from the colonial era and its revolutionary relationship between the West and sub-Saharan Africa in the 18th century.[16]

Along with this came variegated cultural ideas and expressions, intellectual concepts, religious values, as well as radical and disruptive new technologies from Europe that were at the presence of African societies.[17] The outcome was a plethora of newer musical forms and modes of expression along the coast of West and Central Africa.[18] Like the Kru people of Sierra Leone and Liberia, business people, migrant workers, travelers, and musicians who were from the French Congo also brought along another stream of music with them to Douala.[19]

This junction between "old Africa and a new world of modernity" produced new auditory and visual frontiers.[20] It allowed for a sensory experiential interface which culminated into a wide array of artistic and contemporary forms in West and Central African previously unheard before.[21] It was out of this milieu that makossa would emerge, in one which was being revolutionized by new experimental and experiential realms which would revolutionize the entire continent.

Ethnic connection

See also: Demographics of Cameroon

The cultures of Cameroon, the country where makossa was born, are very diverse: indeed, an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups in the country.[22] One of the ethnic groups that makossa was originally majorly performed by was the Duala people.[23] But because more and more musician continued to perform the music, many of whom were from backgrounds other than Duala, or even Sawabantu, makossa also became more diverse.[24]

Bantoid influence on Cameroonian music

Further information: Kingdom of Bamum, Bamileke people, Duala people, Beti-Pahuin peoples, and Bikutsi

Prior to the independence of Cameroon that would lead to makossa's creation, there was the classical music of the Bamoun Kingdom.[25] The Bamileke and the Bamoun are two ethnic groups that are related.[26] Mangambeu is a traditional music genre that is related to bolobo in terms of rhythm.[27] Bikutsi is similar, with a 6/8 time signature and is influenced by the Beti culture.[28] The inspirations range from the history of war connections (being that traditional bikutsi is based on a war rhythm) to entire kingdoms.[29] The Bamoun classical music was founded in the 14th century when the Royal Court founded the musical orchestra for the Bamoun Kingdom to allow for the traditions of the Bamoun classical music to flourish.[30] Classical Bamoun music is based on indigenous Bamoun music with influences from Christian music and Muslim music.[31] There are particular instruments within it that are used in bikutsi music. Mangambeu was developed by the Bamileke people.[32] The music is filled with percussion and uses triplets to divide the beats, with log drums as accompaniment.[33] The Duala music known as bolobo is therefore a music of rejoicing, and as an initiation test for sexual life as well as marital and domestic life, and the oral literature that is presented as part of this music tradition has been a source of inspiration for the manufacturers of makossa.[34] A known musician that plays music of this genre is Richard Bona.

Another music of the Duala is makossa is the essewe. The essewe is a funerary dance practiced for psychotherapeutic purpose, and more specifically to relieve sorrow at the loss of a loved one. The music genre is very well balanced and rhythmic, inviting the energetically pianissimo yet fully involved movement of the body while dancing. Lyrics have influenced makossa, such as with the “Masao”.[2]

Assiko borrows from the Bassa rhythm known as ngola, which is played on bottles with sticks. It developed probably over one hundred years ago. The dance is fast-paced and complex, with twisting hips and acrobatic feats, such as head stands and balancing bottles on the head.[35]

Portuguese influence

Further information: Portuguese guitar and History of Portugal (1415–1578)

The Portuguese guitar was introduced to Africa via the Portuguese traders who landed on the West African coast in the 15th century, which was the start of the trans-Atlantic slave trade as well as the beginning of the European Age of Discovery. The guitar made its entry into Africa in what is now Sierra Leone, going down south through Cameroon, where musicians would use it to play music that would be the predecessor of makossa, including assiko.[36]

British influence

Further information: Hymns, British Empire, and Gospel music

The British missionaries who arrived in West and Central Africa brought not only religion (Protestantism), but the culture that came with it.[37] Classical church songs were a huge part of this.[38] Many people who are makossa musicians today are in one way or another ultimately influenced by Protestant hymns and in particular, Baptist church music.[2] Gospel music origins lie in Presbyterian churches in Scotland, which were also brought to Cameroon in the 19th century.[39][40] The Duala were an ethnic group that were in contact and in agreement with the European settlers and could hence convert relatively agreeably and peaceably.[41]

Composer Daniel Doumbe Eyango is example of a pastor who composed many songs, including "Hymne à la Jeunesse", "Na ma Bolea Oa Nje", and others. LOTIN A SAME, who remains the single greatest composer of hymns in both quality and quantity was a pastor and the father of one of the first makossa musicians to be recorded, EBOA LOTIN and influenced his son in music as well.[42]

American influence

Further information: African-American music, American music, and History of American Imperialism

Musicians such as Chuck Berry and James Brown influenced music at the world stage, and American swing was already permeating colonial Cameroonian society as far back as the 1930s. Local musicians were expected to play their best version of swing music.[43] In the roots of Cameroonian music, assiko was a variant of palm wine music. Palm wine was inspired by ragtime.[44] Ragtime was performed in West Africa, particularly Sierra Leone.[45] Later, with the advent of disco music, bass playing was transplanted from American records. The orchestration used in disco arrangements has particularly marked makossa music. Technical advancements, which were pioneered by Americans, were used in makossa much in the same way they were used in disco. On a more cultural note, musicians would go as far as changing their names in lieu of American sounding ones. Peter MOUKOKO, Bill LOKO, and Georges DICKSON are a just a few examples. Disco musicians that influenced makossa ones include Ike and Tina Turner, Smokey Robinson, Donna Summer, the Temptations, Kool and the Gang, etc.[46][47]

German influence

Further information: Music of Germany and German colonial empire

In 1884, the colony of Kamerun was established by the Germans, after 15 years of settlement. Indigenous African soldiers (known as Schutztruppe) were recruited to fight under German military command as the regiment drawn from various tribes and ethnicities in the West and South-East African colonies of the German Empire.[48] The Schutztruppe were the representation of the significance of military theory and praxis, shown when they defined the musical medium of the colonies as well as cultural and physiological dominance over those colonized.[49] The Germans, and in particular renowned explorer Hermann Wissmann, believed that through the strategic use to civilize the natives, who he viewed as inferior.[50]

Military musicians were among the political and social organizations that celebrated Wissmann's new position as Reichskommissar in 1889, who grew increasingly interested in the development of Germany's presence in Africa to improve on their position as a Great Power.[51]

The Deutsche Militär-Musiker Zeitung, an exclusive music trade journal of the German armed forces at the time, stated this about Wissmann and his commitment to promote German military music as an essential amenity and a military necessity:

‘Music delights the human heart! Why should the many officers and officials not be able to enjoy this joy? Moreover, one could be convinced that our Sudanese warriors would undoubtedly be even more enthusiastic and fight with even greater enthusiasm if a music corps accompanied them. The enemies would be so frightened by the sound of the instruments that it would be easy to fight them.'[52]

Music that the German military musicians played was in affect the overlapping of Volkmusik, characterized as having "jovial and bright sounds" and German military music with its "truly martial manners" which all in all represented the "national and musical character of the military" which affected the indigenous people in every one of their colonies, including Kamerunstadt, which today is Douala. German folk music was often played on European instruments, including the accordion. While the colonists were trying plaster their culture onto native Africans via music, the natives often instead found ways to recoding the music performed before them. Oftentimes soldiers would dance and shout interjections, while themselves adopting native customs, which became common in the music that the Sawa played, eventually gaining the name "ambasse bey".[52][53]

French influence

Further information: French colonial empire and Chanson

In the 1930s, record companies from France arrived in modern-day Cameroon. They had the goal of persuading the native musicians to record for recording companies such as Pathé. This led to the acceptance and approval of the natives, and they started making records. Oftentimes, and more often than not, the recordings would be very short and not very good quality. Later on, French musicians would inspire musicians in modern-day Cameroon to make more and more music. This was thanks to the French-styled chansons that were popular at the time. This was reminiscent of the original cause of the music to be made (French recording companies).[54]

Ethnogenesis

Assiko

Assiko was a local variant of palm wine music in Cameroon, with an up-tempo beat. It was played with guitar, bottle-tapping and singing. There are four types of assiko: Assiko bassa, assiko eton, assiko Bulu, and the Bottle dance of the North-West Region of Cameroon. These are the main subgenres of this music. It is important to distinguish this music (assiko of Cameroon) from that of Sierra Leone (or better put, ashiko), or aṣíkò from Nigeria. Assiko is affectionately called the "Bottle-bop" by Jean-Luc Ponty, a French violinist. Assiko is also known of in other parts of Africa besides the aforementioned, but of course as different styles. The style in Cameroon is different from that of Senegal, or the Gambia, for example. This is due to their origins within the borders of their respective countries.[55]

The guitar can be played as a solo or rhythmic (accompaniment) instrument. A guitarist can play with diversity in roles as an accompaniment instrument while in between choruses. The local Cameroonian variant of assiko is different from palm wine music (or maringa) in its speed, and the language it is sung in (as it is typically sung in Bassa). Assiko, however, retained the lilting, syncopated picking of the guitar. It may have originated from the ragtime composed and performed in the 19th century from the United States.[56] It can be said that before the formative years of palm wine music, the transatlantic slave trade being over, and slavery abolished in America, the music of African Americans at the time may have been transported to West Africa, specific to Liberia.[57] This could then have included ragtime music, being that ragtime was an early form of African American popular music. Ragtime is syncopated, and hence the characteristic makes sense to have ultimately been inherited by assiko, via palm wine music.[58]

Assiko, like palm wine music, is not complicated music. It is rather simple, and informal. It was played historically at bars where palm wine (an alcoholic beverage found in West Africa) was served, and it was born out of both casual interactions and musical expression. In this respect, assiko is not much different. It was taught by ear, like much sub-Saharan African music, and was therefore not notated as far as for performances.[59] It requires a knowledge of music theory but also feeling.[60] It is repetitive and requires the use of not many musicians. Assiko guitarists often sang their own songs while playing guitar. The combination of a knowledge of various musical motifs that imply a particular sound as an extension of the ultimate music and its sources (palm wine music, as it was influenced by calypso, mento, and ragtime, and these genres musically being tied to European music styles such as ballroom music like quadrilles, pasillo, and classical European music among others) as well a sense of feeling (that often allowed the easier transmission of music in sub-Saharan African cases) brought that about and led to the expediting of that music which is uniquely assiko.[61]

Notes

  1. ^ a b RaDio2-FuTure1-AfriCa2 (13 January 2022). "Music: The Emergence Of A New Sonic Language". Radio Future Africa. Retrieved 29 February 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e f Noah, Jean Maurice; Owona Nguini, Mathias Éric (2010). Le makossa: une musique africaine moderne. Études africaines. Paris: l'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-296-54150-4.
  3. ^ "Makossa Music Guide: A Brief History of Makossa Music". 22 March 2022. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
  4. ^ George Echu. "Multilingualism as a Resource: the Lexical Appropriation of Cameroon Indigenous Languages by English and French". Section "Cultural-based terms" (last line)
  5. ^ a b Durosomo, Damola (8 May 2020). "This video explores the countless songs that sample Manu Dibango's 'Soul Makossa'". Okay Africa. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  6. ^ Smith, Courtney E. (19 June 2019). "Shakira has the biggest World Cup song of them all. Here's how she did it". Refinery 29. Retrieved 13 December 2023.
  7. ^ "Cameroon-Info.Net". www.cameroon-info.net (in French). Retrieved 24 February 2024.
  8. ^ Kouega, Jean-Paul (2008). A dictionary of Cameroon Pidgin English usage: pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary. LINCOM studies in Pidgin & Creole linguistics. München: LINCOM Europa. ISBN 978-3-89586-204-5.
  9. ^ admin (7 May 2007). "Nelle Eyoum". Afrisson (in French). Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  10. ^ "Exhort - Definition, Meaning & Synonyms". Vocabulary.com. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  11. ^ Fifield, Dominic (14 June 2010). "World Cup 2010: Franz Beckenbauer attacks England's 'kick and rush'". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  12. ^ Owona Nguini, Mathias Eric (2024). La controverse bikutsi-makossa: musique, politique et affinités régionales au Cameroun (1990-1994) [The bikutsi-makossa controversy: music, politics and regional affinities in Cameroon (1990-1994)] (in French). University of Michigan: Edition Karthala (published 1997). pp. 267–276. ISBN 9782865377534.
  13. ^ Guiffo, Jean-Philippe (2024). Les peuples de la Vallée du Nkam et leur spécificité par rapport aux Duala [The peoples of the Nkam Valley and their specificity compared to the Duala] (in French). Cameroon: Editions de l'Essoah (published 2005). pp. 23–35.
  14. ^ "Frank Bessem's Musiques d'Afrique: Cameroun ||| Music of Cameroon". www.musiques-afrique.net. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  15. ^ Butterfly, The Traveler (13 June 2019). "The Country That Made Africa Dance In The 1980s and 1990s | The Traveler Butterfly". TheTravelerButterfly. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  16. ^ Pizà, Antoni (2023). "Chapter 1: The Music of Africa". Listening to the World.
  17. ^ Mbah, Emmanuel M. (17 April 2024), "Political History of Cameroon", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.1348, ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4, retrieved 28 November 2024
  18. ^ "Music In West Africa". www.westmusic.com. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  19. ^ bawtonyapendleton (1 February 2017). "Little Known Black History Fact: Kru People". Black America Web. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  20. ^ Reid, Richard J. (2012). A history of modern Africa: 1800 to the present. Concise history of the modern world (2nd ed.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–408. ISBN 978-0-470-65898-7.
  21. ^ "Music in Modern African History". academic.oup.com. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  22. ^ Schoolbooks, World (14 September 2024). "The Languages of Cameroon: A Fascinating Example of Linguistic Diversity". Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  23. ^ Adesina, Jide (21 December 2014). "DUALA (DOUALA) PEOPLE: ONE OF THE CAMEROONIAN COASTAL ETHNIC GROUP TO HAVE EARLY CONTACT WITH EUROPEANS // PEUPLE DUALA (DOUALA): UNE DE L'ETHNIE CÔTIÈRE CAMEROUNAIS D'AVOIR LES PREMIERS CONTACTS AVEC LES EUROPÉENS". 1st Afrika. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  24. ^ Duru, Collins Tochukwu. "Makossa: The Rhythmic Heartbeat of African Music | BULB". www.bulbapp.io. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  25. ^ SupremeMasterTV13 (2 August 2011). The Classical Music of Cameroon' Bamoun Kingdom. Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.{{cite AV media}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ "African kingdoms : an encyclopedia of empires and civilizations | WorldCat.org". search.worldcat.org. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  27. ^ Bobby-James Nguimè - Topic (24 July 2017). Le bolobo. Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.
  28. ^ Berry, Mick; Gianni, Jason (2003). The Drummer's Bible: How to Play Every Drum Style from Afro-Cuban to Zydeco.
  29. ^ Falola, Toyin; Jean-Jacques, Daniel (2016). Africa: an encyclopedia of culture and society. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, an imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC. ISBN 978-1-59884-665-2.
  30. ^ "Dailymotion". www.dailymotion.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  31. ^ Dà youpké Shupamöm (30 January 2018). Music Bamoun: Kèna mâ sâ... Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.
  32. ^ Nzegwu (19 August 2021). "African tribal dance: styles and meaning". Afrinik. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  33. ^ "Slit Drum; African, Bamileke peoples, Cameroon; probably 20th century; 7093 on eHive". eHive. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  34. ^ Narcisse Mouelle Kombi (2 August 2019). Danse bolobo. Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.
  35. ^ "Jean Bikoko Aladin The King of Assiko « Music Time in Africa". Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  36. ^ "Jean Bikoko Aladin The King of Assiko « Music Time in Africa". Retrieved 20 August 2024.
  37. ^ "Home - Office for National Statistics". www.ons.gov.uk. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  38. ^ Brilliant Classics (23 September 2019). Choral Classics from Cambridge. Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.
  39. ^ "Evangical Mission in Solidarity".
  40. ^ "From Charles Mackintosh's waterproof to Dolly the sheep: 43 innovations Scotland has given the world". Independent.co.uk. 29 December 2016.
  41. ^ "Duala | Duala Culture, Cameroon, Trade | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  42. ^ Noah, Jean Maurice; Owona Nguini, Mathias Éric (2010). Le makossa: une musique africaine moderne. Études africaines. Paris: l'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-296-54150-4.
  43. ^ Broughton, Simon; Ellingham, Mark; Trillo, Richard (1999). World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-85828-635-8.
  44. ^ teachingrevival (6 February 2009). West African Music History. Retrieved 24 December 2024 – via YouTube.
  45. ^ Horton, Christian Dowu (1984). "Popular Bands of Sierra Leone: 1920 to the Present". The Black Perspective in Music. 12 (2): 183–192. doi:10.2307/1215021. ISSN 0090-7790.
  46. ^ Noah, Jean Maurice (2010). Le makossa: une musique africaine moderne. Études africaines. Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN 978-2-296-54150-4. OCLC 700706729.
  47. ^ Matthew (4 March 2020). "History of Multitrack Recording: Who Invented Multitrack Recording?". recording-history.org. Retrieved 24 December 2024.
  48. ^ Berend, Ivan T. (2016). An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe (2nd ed.). West Nyack: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-13642-7.
  49. ^ "Africa: German Colonies | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  50. ^ "Hermann von Wissmann | African Expedition, Congo Basin & Colonialism | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  51. ^ "Hermann von Wissmann | African Expedition, Congo Basin & Colonialism | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  52. ^ a b "'You drums and fifes, my whole life long': The German military band and the emotional communities of the German Empire" (PDF).
  53. ^ "Ambasse bey: Sawa Traditional Music with German colonial roots".
  54. ^ Broughton, Simon; Ellingham, Mark; Trillo, Richard. World Music: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, Volume 1.
  55. ^ Koubaka, Henri-Pierre (31 May 2011). "Community Music and The Culture of Trans-border Peace in West Africa: The Case of the Assiko in Gorée (Sénégal)". Leading Music Education International Conference.
  56. ^ "Exodusters & Western Expansion". National Archives. 12 May 2021. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  57. ^ "Liberia". Stake Claim or Take Flight: The Birth of Southern Conventions after the Civil War. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  58. ^ Berlin, Edward A. (2001). "Ragtime". Grove Music Online. doi:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.22825. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  59. ^ Smart, Cherry-Ann (1 March 2019). "African oral tradition, cultural retentions and the transmission of knowledge in the West Indies". IFLA Journal. 45 (1): 16–25. doi:10.1177/0340035218823219. ISSN 0340-0352.
  60. ^ "Feel the Beat: African Influence in Modern Music". thediasporacollective. 15 November 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
  61. ^ Stefan Walcott (27 June 2014). An Aural History of Calypso 1 - What it sounds Like - www.stefanwalcott.com. Retrieved 29 November 2024 – via YouTube.

References

  • West, Ben (2004). Cameroon: The Bradt Travel Guide. Guilford, Connecticut: The Globe Pequot Press Inc.
  • Noah, Jean-Maurice (2010). Le Makossa: une musique africaine moderne. Paris, France: L'Harmattan
Kembali kehalaman sebelumnya