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Romanian alphabet
The Romanian alphabet is a variant of the Latin alphabet used for writing the Romanian language. It is a modification of the classical Latin alphabet and consists of 31 letters,[1][2] five of which (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, and Ț) have been modified from their Latin originals for the phonetic requirements of the language.
The letters Q (chiu), W (dublu ve), and Y (igrec or i grec, meaning "Greek i") were formally introduced in the Romanian alphabet in 1982, although they had been used earlier. They occur only in foreign words and their Romanian derivatives, such as quasar, watt, and yacht. The letter K, although relatively older, is also rarely used and appears only in proper names and international neologisms such as kilogram, broker, karate.[3] These four letters are still perceived as foreign, which explains their usage for stylistic purposes in words such as nomenklatură (normally nomenclatură, meaning "nomenclature", but sometimes spelled with k instead of c if referring to members of the Communist leadership in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries, as nomenklatura is used in English).[4] Most of the <qu> and <y> in learned Latin words (or Greek words via Latin) are replaced by <cu/cv> and <i> respectively (e.g. ecuația "equation", acvariu "aquarium", oxigen "oxygen"). However, the <y> is retained in ytriu ("yttrium") and yterbiu ("ytterbium"), probably because of the element symbols Y and Yb. In cases where the word is a direct borrowing having diacritical marks not present in the above alphabet, official spelling tends to favor their use (München, Angoulême etc., as opposed to the use of Istanbul over İstanbul). Letters and their pronunciationRomanian spelling is mostly phonemic without silent letters (but see i). The table below gives the correspondence between letters and sounds. Some of the letters have several possible readings, even if allophones are not taken into account. When vowels /i/, /u/, /e/, and /o/ are changed into their corresponding semivowels, this is not marked in writing. Letters K, Q, W, and Y appear only in foreign borrowings; the pronunciation of W and Y and of the combination QU depends on the origin of the word they appear in.
* See Comma-below (ș and ț) versus cedilla (ş and ţ). Special letters Romanian orthography does not use accents or diacritics – these are secondary symbols added to letters (i.e. basic glyphs) to alter their pronunciation or to distinguish between words. There are, however, five special letters in the Romanian alphabet (associated with four different sounds) which are formed by modifying other Latin letters; strictly speaking these letters function as basic glyphs in their own right rather than letters with diacritical marks, but they are often referred to as the latter.
The letter â is used exclusively in the middle of words; its majuscule version appears only in all-capitals inscriptions. Writing letters ș and ț with a cedilla instead of a comma is considered incorrect by the Romanian Academy. Romanian writings, including books created to teach children to write, treat the comma and cedilla as a variation in font. See Unicode and HTML below. Î versus ÂThe letters î and â are phonetically and functionally identical. The reason for using both of them is historical, denoting the language's Latin origin. For a few decades until a spelling reform in 1904, as many as four or five letters had been used for the same phoneme (â, ê, î, û, and occasionally ô, see Removed Letters), according to an etymological rule.[8] All were used to represent the vowel /ɨ/, toward which the original Latin vowels written with circumflexes had converged. The 1904 reform saw only two letters remaining, â and î, the choice of which followed rules that changed several times during the 20th century. During the first half of the century the rule was to use î in word-initial and word-final positions, and â everywhere else. There were exceptions, imposing the use of î in internal positions when words were combined or derived with prefixes or suffixes. For example, the adjective urît "ugly" was written with î because it derives from the verb a urî "to hate". In 1953, during the Communist era, the Romanian Academy eliminated the letter â, replacing it with î everywhere, including the name of the country, which was to be spelled Romînia. The first stipulation coincided with the official designation of the country as a People's Republic, which meant that its full title was Republica Populară Romînă. A minor spelling reform in 1964 brought back the letter â, but only in the spelling of român "Romanian" and all its derivatives, including the name of the country. As such, the Socialist Republic proclaimed in 1965 is associated with the spelling Republica Socialistă România. Soon after the fall of the Ceaușescu government, the Romanian Academy decided to reintroduce â from 1993 onward, by canceling the effects of the 1953 spelling reform and essentially reverting to the 1904 rules (with some differences). The move was publicly justified as the rectification either of a Communist assault on tradition, or of a Soviet influence on the Romanian culture, and as a return to a traditional spelling that bears the mark of the language's Latin origin.[9][10][11] The political context at the time, however, was that the Romanian Academy was largely regarded as a Communist and corrupt institution — Nicolae Ceaușescu and his wife Elena had been its honored members, and membership had been controlled by the Communist Party.[12] As such, the 1993 spelling reform was seen as an attempt of the Academy to break with its Communist past.[13][14] The Academy invited the national community of linguists as well as foreign linguists specialized in Romanian to discuss the problem;[15] when these overwhelmingly opposed the spelling reform in vehement terms, their position was explicitly dismissed as being too scientific.[16][17] According to the 1993 reform, the choice between î and â is thus again based on a rule that is neither strictly etymological nor phonological, but positional and morphological. The sound is always spelled as â, except at the beginning and the end of words, where î is to be used instead. Exceptions include proper nouns where the usage of the letters is frozen, whichever it may be, and compound words, whose components are each separately subjected to the rule (e.g. ne- + îndemânatic → neîndemânatic "clumsy", not *neândemânatic). However, the exception no longer applies to words derived with suffixes, in contrast with the 1904 norm; for instance what was spelled urît after 1904 became urât after 1993. Although the reform was promoted as a means to show the Latin origin of Romanian, statistically only few of the words written with â according to the 1993 reform actually derive from Latin words having an a in the corresponding position.[18] In fact, this includes a large number of words that contained an i in the original Latin and are similarly written with i in their Italian or Spanish counterparts. Examples include rîu "river", from the Latin rivus (compare Spanish río), now written râu; along with rîde < ridere, sîn < sinus, strînge < stringere, lumînare < luminaria, etc. While the 1993 spelling norm is compulsory in Romanian education and official publications, and gradually most other publications came to use it, there are still individuals, publications and publishing houses preferring the previous spelling norm or a mixed hybrid system of their own; among them are the weekly cultural magazine Dilema Veche and the daily Gazeta Sporturilor. Some publications allow authors to choose either spelling norm; these include România literară, the magazine of the Writers' Union of Romania, and publishing houses such as Polirom. Dictionaries, grammars and other linguistic works have also been published using the î and sînt long after the 1993 reform.[19] Ultimately, the conflict results from two different linguistically-based reasonings as to how to spell /ɨ/. The choice of â derives from a being the most average or central of the five vowels (the official Bulgarian romanization uses the same logic, choosing a for ъ, resulting in the country's name being spelled Balgariya; and also the European Portuguese vowel /ɐ/ for a mentioned above), whereas î is an attempt to choose the Latin letter that most intuitively writes the sound /ɨ/ (similarly to how Polish uses the letter y). Although the Romanian Academy standard mandates the comma-below variants for the sounds /ʃ/ and /ts/, the cedilla variants are still widely used. Many printed and online texts still incorrectly use "s with cedilla" and "t with cedilla". This state of affairs is due to an initial lack of glyph standardization, compounded by the lack of computer font support for the comma-below variants (see the Unicode section for details). The lack of support for the comma diacritics has been corrected in current versions of major operating systems: Windows Vista or newer, Linux distributions after 2005 and currently supported macOS versions. As mandated by the European Union, Microsoft released a font update to correct this deficiency in Windows XP (also applicable to 2000/Server 2003) in early 2007, soon after Romania joined the European Union. Obsolete letters Before the spelling reform of 1904, there were several additional letters with diacritical marks.
In addition, the acute accent (á, í) was used in verb infinitives and 3rd-person imperfect forms stressed on the last syllable: lăudá ("to praise"), aud̦í ("to hear"), 3rd-person imperfect lăudá, aud̦iá. The grave accent (à, ì, ù) was used in 3rd-person perfect forms stressed on the last syllable: lăudà, aud̦ì.[26] Use of these letters was not fully adopted even before 1904, as some publications (e.g. Timpul and Universul) chose to use a simplified approach that resembled today's Romanian language writing.[citation needed] Other diacriticsAs with other languages, the acute accent is sometimes used in Romanian texts to indicate the stressed vowel in some words. This use is regular in dictionary headwords, but also occasionally found in carefully edited texts to disambiguate between homographs that are not also homophones, such as to differentiate between cópii ("copies") and copíi ("children"), éra ("the era") and erá ("was"), ácele ("the needles") and acéle ("those"), etc. The accent also distinguishes between homographic verb forms, such as încúie and încuié ("he locks" and "he has locked").[27] Diacritics in some borrowings are kept: bourrée, pietà. Foreign names are also usually spelled with their original diacritics: Bâle, Molière, even when an acute accent might be wrongly interpreted as a stress, as in István or Gérard. However, frequently used foreign names, such as names of cities or countries, are often spelled without diacritics: Bogota, Panama, Peru.[28] Digital typographyISO 8859 The character encoding standard ISO 8859 initially defined a single code page for the entire Central and Eastern Europe — ISO 8859-2. This code page includes only "s" and "t" with cedillas. The South-Eastern European ISO 8859-16 includes "s" and "t" with comma below on the same places "s" and "t" with cedilla were in ISO 8859-2. The ISO 8859-16 code page became a standard after Unicode became widespread, however, so it was largely ignored by software vendors. Unicode and HTMLThe circumflex and breve accented Romanian letters were part of the Unicode standard since its inception, as well as the cedilla variants of s and t. Ș and ț (comma-below variants) were added to Unicode version 3.0.[29][30] From Unicode version 3.0 to version 5.1, the cedilla-using characters were specified by the Unicode Standard to be "used in both Turkish and Romanian data" and that "a glyph variant with comma below is preferred for Romanian"; On the newly encoded comma-using characters, it said that they should be used "when distinct comma below form is required".[31][32] Unicode 5.2 explicitly states that "the form with the cedilla is preferred in Turkish, and the form with the comma below is preferred in Romanian", while mentioning (possibly for historical reasons) that "in Turkish and Romanian, a cedilla and a comma below sometimes replace one another".[33] Widespread adoption was hampered for some years by the lack of fonts providing the new glyphs. In May 2007, four months after Romania (and Bulgaria) joined the EU, Microsoft released updated fonts that include all official glyphs of the Romanian (and Bulgarian) alphabet.[34] This font update targeted Windows 2000, XP and Server 2003. The subset of Unicode most widely supported on Microsoft Windows systems, Windows Glyph List 4, still does not include the comma-below variants of S and T.
Vowels with diacritics are coded as follows:
Adobe/Linotype de facto standard GSUB/latn/ROM/locl feature, which remaps the s with cedilla glyph to comma-below. The rendering on the right is visually indistinguishable from the rendering produced by comma-below code points for this font.Adobe Systems decided[35] that the Unicode glyphs "t with cedilla" U+0162/3 are not used in any language. (It is in fact used, but in very few languages. T with Cedilla exists as part of the General Alphabet of Cameroon Languages, in some Gagauz orthographies, in the Kabyle dialect of the Berber language, and possibly elsewhere.) Adobe has therefore substituted the glyphs with "t with comma below" (U+021A/B) in all the fonts they ship. The unfortunate consequence of this decision is that Romanian documents using the (unofficial) Unicode points U+015E/F and U+0162/3 (for ş and ţ) are rendered in Adobe fonts in a visually inconsistent way using "s with cedilla", but "t with comma" (see figure). Linotype fonts that support Romanian glyphs mostly follow this convention.[36] The fonts used by Microsoft before Windows Vista also implement this de facto Adobe standard. Few Microsoft fonts provide a consistent look when cedilla variants are used; notable ones are Tahoma, Verdana, Trebuchet MS, Microsoft Sans Serif and Segoe UI. The free DejaVu and Linux Libertine fonts provide proper and consistent glyphs in both variants. Red Hat's Liberation fonts only support the comma below variants starting with version 1.04, scheduled for inclusion in Fedora 10. OpenType |
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| letter | mark key | base letter | note |
|---|---|---|---|
| ț | ; | t | |
| ă | U | a | shift-u for U |
| î | ^ | i | shift-6 for ^ |
Spelling alphabet
There is a Romanian equivalent to the English-language spelling alphabets. Most of the code words are people's first names, with the exception of K, J, Q, W and Y. Letters with diacritics (Ă, Â, Î, Ș, Ț) are generally transmitted without diacritics (A, A, I, S, T).
| Word | IPA (unofficial) | |
|---|---|---|
| A | Ana | /ˈa.na/ |
| B | Barbu | /ˈbar.bu/ |
| C | Constantin | /kon.stanˈtin/ |
| D | Dumitru | /duˈmi.tru/ |
| E | Elena | /eˈle.na/ |
| F | Florea | /ˈflo.re̯a/ |
| G | Gheorghe | /ˈɡe̯or.ɡe/ |
| H | Haralambie | /ha.raˈlam.bi.e/ |
| I | Ion | /iˈon/ |
| J | Jiu | /ʒiw/ |
| K | kilogram | /ki.loˈɡram/ |
| L | Lazăr | /ˈla.zər/ |
| M | Maria | /maˈri.a/ |
| Word | IPA (unofficial) | |
|---|---|---|
| N | Nicolae | /ni.koˈla.e/ |
| O | Olga | /ˈol.ɡa/ |
| P | Petre | /ˈpe.tre/ |
| Q | Q | /ˈkju/ |
| R | Radu | /ˈra.du/ |
| S | Sandu | /ˈsan.du/ |
| T | Tudor | /ˈtu.dor/ |
| U | Udrea | /ˈu.dre̯a/ |
| V | Vasile | /vaˈsi.le/ |
| W | dublu V | /du.bluˈve/ |
| X | Xenia | /ˈkse.ni.a/ |
| Y | I grec | /ˈi.ɡrek/ |
| Z | Zamfir | /zamˈfir/ |
See also
- Aromanian alphabet
- Istro-Romanian alphabet
- Megleno-Romanian alphabet
- Romanian transitional alphabet
- Romanian Cyrillic alphabet
- Romanian Braille
References
Notes
- ^ (in Romanian) Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, 1998, Z is the thirty first letter of the Romanian alphabet, dexonline.ro
- ^ Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti", Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, București, 2005, pp. XXVII–XXVIII (in Romanian)
- ^ (in Romanian) Academia Română, Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române, Entry for K, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1998, dexonline.ro
- ^ Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti", Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2nd Edition, Univers Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005, ISBN 973-637-087-9, p. XXIX (in Romanian)
- ^ Academia Română, Institutul de Lingvistică „Iorgu Iordan – Al. Rosetti", Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2nd Edition, Univers Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2005, ISBN 973-637-087-9, p. XXIX–XXXVI (in Romanian)
- ^ Ovidiu Drăghici. "Limba Română contemporană. Fonetică. Fonologie. Ortografie. Lexicologie" (PDF). Retrieved 19 April 2013.[permanent dead link]
- ^ (in Romanian) Several Romanian dictionaries specify the pronunciation [je] for word-initial letter e in some personal pronouns: el, ei, etc. and in some forms of the verb a fi (to be): este, eram, etc.
- ^ Alf Lombard, "Despre folosirea literelor â și î", Limba română, 1992, №10, p. 531
- ^ Dumitru Irimia, "De ce scriu și susțin scrierea cu î din i?" (in Romanian) "In its rationale report for the 'new' orthography, presented in 1992, the Romanian Academy considered that it had the 'duty to cut out a bridgehead in the Romanian language,' placed there by the occupier and the Communist power. 'The 1953 orthography is Stalinist,' we were told repeatedly and we are told now again. Two things are true: (1) The 1953/1965 orthography was established during the Communist regime. (2) The orthographic system was preceded by a 'framework', a panegyrical Stalinist introduction. That is all."
- ^ Mioara Avram, "Patrioticul â", Expres Magazin, №24 (150), 23–30 June 1993, p. 20 (in Romanian) "In January 1993, the leadership of the Academy took the initiative in changing the orthography, presenting from the beginning this measure as an act of reparation brought to the Romanian language for the alleged totalitarian assault upon it by the Communist regime."
- ^ Alex. Ștefănescu, "De ce scriu cu â din a", România literară, №38, 2002 (in Romanian) "I write using â for yet another reason: because by doing so I want to contest, every day, a spelling norm that was established abusively during Stalinism. Established not on linguistic grounds, but on political grounds. By giving up the letter â, they were pulling out, as with tweezers, the Latin nerve from the Romanian language."
- ^ "Victime de elită", Evenimentul zilei, 4 February 2006 (in Romanian) "In 1974, Elena Ceaușescu became full member of the Academy of the Socialist Republic of Romania. It was the conclusion of a process that had begun a few years earlier, by which the Academy, an institution with a history of over 100 years at that point, was entirely subordinated to the Party. In 1985, her husband was to become himself a full member as well as the honorary president of the Academy."
- ^ Ion Bogdan Lefter (2001). "Limba romana speculata politic".
- ^ George Pruteanu, "Â-ul fără noimă", Expres Magazin, №10 (238), 14–21 March 1995, p. 14 (in Romanian) "Through such a politicizing justification, the Academy was attempting to atone, in a seemingly spectacular gesture, its heavy sins of flattery and obedience toward the Communist Party, during the dictatorship years, the diluting of its membership with all sorts of worthless intruders who are otherwise still among the 'eternals'."
- ^ Acozmei, Constantin, ed. (2018). 100 de ani de grafie românească. ISBN 978-606-94358-1-6.
- ^ Elis Râpeanu (2018). "cum a fost votată, în cadrul academiei române, revenirea la scrierea cu â și î".
- ^ Ștefan Cazimir, "Dragă Academie", România literară, №5, 2003 (in Romanian)
- ^ A statistical study cited by George Pruteanu in "De ce scriu cu î din i" ("Why I spell with î") finds that proportion to be only about 15%.
- ^ For instance: Eugenia Dima et al., Dicționar explicativ ilustrat al limbii române, 2007; Ioan Oprea et al., Noul dicționar universal al limbii române, third edition, 2008; Dumitru Irimia, Gramatica limbii române, third edition, 2008.
- ^ (in Romanian) Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toți, Editura Litera Internațional, București – Chișinău, 2002, p. 66
- ^ Most dictionaries give the syllabification su-biect, implying that i is a semivowel, but Dicționar de neologisme syllabifies it as su-bi-ect, with vocalic i: Dexonline.ro
- ^ Dictionaries generally recommend the pronunciation with vocalic i, zi-ar, but the pronunciation in one syllable is also recorded, among others, by Ioana Chițoran, in The Phonology of Romanian, 2002, p. 14.
- ^ "zi - definiție și paradigmă | dexonline".
- ^ "dexonline". dexonline.ro.
- ^ "dexonline". dexonline.ro.
- ^ Nic. Densușianu. Sistema ortografica a limbei române. Bucuresci, 1904.
- ^ Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2005, p. LI (in Romanian)
- ^ Dicționarul ortografic, ortoepic și morfologic al limbii române, 2005, p. LII (in Romanian)
- ^ Unicode 3.0 standard, p.162
- ^ "Unicode.org".
- ^ "Unicode.org".
- ^ "Unicode.org".
- ^ "Unicode 5.2 Chapter 7, European Alphabetic Scripts" (PDF).
- ^ a b European Union Expansion Font Update, microsoft.com
- ^ comments of Canadian type designer John Hudson Archived 4 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine, typophile.com
- ^ Linotype's font finder allows users to test font rendering with their own sample texts. Tested with the sample text "Țâșnit în şanţ".Linotype.com[permanent dead link]
- ^
loclglyph localization feature tag explained., microsoft.com - ^ p. 15, store.adobe.com
Bibliography
- (in Romanian) Mioara Avram, Ortografie pentru toți, Editura Litera Internațional, 2002
- The Unicode Consortium (2000). The Unicode Standard, Version 3.0. Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-61633-5.
External links
- Unicode Latin Extended-B characters, unicode.org
- Sounds of the Romanian Language, etc.tuiasi.ro
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