Семити

Семити (Семићани) или семитски народи, су стара група народа сродних по језику, етничком пореклу и антрополошким особинама.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Насељавају источне обале Медитеранског басена, земље Блиског и Средњег истока као и северну Африку. Ова терминологија се сада углавном не користи изван груписања „семитских језика“ у лингвистици.^[6]^[7]^[8] Први пут коришћена током 1770-их од стране чланова Гетингенске школе историје, ова библијска терминологија за расу изведена је од Шема (хебр. שֵׁם), једног од три Нојева сина у Књизи постања,^[9] заједно са паралелним терминима Хамити и Јафетити.

Преко две хиљаде година су Јевреји живели далеко од своје првобитне отаџбине. Семитска историја и семитска религија [ru] су се највише удаљиле од својих корена преко хришћанства. Семитска култура је, осим тога, допрла далеко ширењем ислама. Све три западне религије: јудаизам, хришћанство и ислам – имају семитску основу. И света књига Куран и Стари завет су написани на сродним семитским језицима. Из Старог завета има тако исти језички корен као Алах, реч коју муслимани користе за бога. Када је реч о хришћанству, ствар је већ другачија. Такође и хришћанство има семитску основу, али је Нови завет написан грчком језику, а када је обликована хришћанска теологија и или веронаука, њу су означили грчки и латински језик и хеленистичка филозофија. Семити су се за разлику од Индоевропљана рано определили за једног бога. То се назива монотеизам. Под семитске народе, кроз историју су се побрајали Акађани [uk] (Асирци и Вавилонци [uk]), Арамејци (Сиријци) и Кананити (Јевреји, Феничани [uk], Моабити и Аморити). Данас се под Семитима подразумевају углавном савремени Арапи, Јевреји и Малтежани.^[8]

Етничка припадност и раса

Термин семитски у расном смислу сковали су чланови Гетингенске школе историје током раних 1770-их. Други чланови Гетингенске школе историје сковали су посебан термин белац током 1780-их. Ове термине су користили и развили бројни други научници током следећег века. Почетком 20. века, псеудонаучне класификације Карлетона С. Куна укључиле су семитске народе у кавкаску расу, као сличне по изгледу индоевропским, северозападнокавказским и народима који говоре картвелски.^[10] Због преплитања проучавања језика и културологије, термин је почео да се примењује и на религије (старосемитске и абрахамске) и етничке групе различитих култура које су повезане географском и лингвистичком дистрибуцијом.^[11]

Антисемитизам

Изрази „антисемита“ или „антисемитизам“ дошли су заобилазним путем да се уже односе на свакога ко је био непријатељски или дискриминаторски настројен према Јеврејима посебно.^[12]

Антрополози 19. века, као што је Ернест Ренан, лако су ускладили лингвистичке групе са етничком припадношћу и културом, позивајући се на анегдоте, науку и фолклор у својим настојањима да дефинишу расни карактер. Мориц Штајншнајдер, у свом часопису о јеврејским писмима Хамаскир (3 (Берлин 1860), 16), разматра чланак Хајмана Штајнтала^[13] који критикује Ренанов чланак „Нова разматрања општег карактера семитских народа, посебно њихове склоности ка монотеизму”.^[14] Ренан је признао важност древних цивилизација Месопотамије, Израела итд, али је семитске расе назвао инфериорним у односу на аријевске због њиховог монотеизма, за који је сматрао да произлази из њихових наводних пожудних, насилних, бескрупулозних и себичних расних инстинкта. Штајнтал је ове предиспозиције сажео као „семитизам“, те је Штајншнајдер окарактерисао Ренанове идеје као „антисемитске предрасуде“.^[15]

Године 1879, немачки новинар Вилхелм Мар започео је политизацију појма говорећи о борби између Јевреја и Немаца у памфлету под називом Der Weg zum Siege des Germanenthums über das Judenthum („Пут до победе германизма над јудаизмом“). Оптужио је Јевреје да су либерали, народ без корена који је јудаизирао Немце ван спасења. Године 1879, Марове присталице су основале „Лигу за антисемитизам“,^[16] која се у потпуности бавила антијеврејским политичким деловањем.

Замерке на употребу термина, као што је застарела природа термина „семитски“ као расног термина, постављају се најмање од 1930-их.^[17]^[18]

Види још

Референце

^ Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie, Gatterer, 1771. Described first ethnic use of the term Semitic by: (1) A note on the history of 'Semitic', 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw, 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).
^ Liverani1995, стр. 392: "A more critical look at this complex of problems should advise employing today the term and the concept "Semites" exclusively in its linguistic sense, and, on the other hand, tracing back every cultural fact to its concrete historical environment. The use of the term "Semitic" in culture, subject as it is to arbitrary simplifications, shows methodological risks which exceed by far the possibility of positive historical analysis. In any case the Semitic character of every cultural fact is a problem which in each situation must be ascenained in its limits and in its historical setting (both in time and in the social environment), and may not be assumed as obvious or traced back to a presumed "Proto-Semitic" culture, statically conceived."
^ On the use of the terms “(anti-)Semitic” and “(anti-) Zionist” in modern Middle Eastern discourse, Orientalia Suecana LXI Suppl. (2012) by Lutz Eberhard Edzard: "In linguistics context, the term "Semitic" is generally speaking non-controversial... As an ethnic term, "Semitic" should best be avoided these days, in spite of ongoing genetic research (which also is supported by the Israeli scholarly community itself) that tries to scientifically underpin such a concept."
^ Review of "The Canaanites" (1964) by Marvin Pope: "The term "Semitic," coined by Schlozer in 1781, should be strictly limited to linguistic matters since this is the only area in which a degree of objectivity is attainable. The Semitic languages comprise a fairly distinct linguistic family, a fact appreciated long before the relationship of the Indo-European languages was recognized. The ethnography and ethnology of the various peoples who spoke or still speak Semitic languages or dialects is a much more mixed and confused matter and one over which we have little scientific control."
^ Glöckner, Olaf; Fireberg, Haim (25. 9. 2015). Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany. De Gruyter. стр. 200. ISBN 978-3-11-035015-9. „...there is no Semitic ethnicity, only Semitic languages”
^ Anidjar 2008, стр. (Foreword): "This collection of essays explores the now mostly extinct notion of Semites. Invented in the nineteenth century and essential to the making of modern conceptions of religion and race, the strange unity of Jew and Arab under one term, Semite (the opposing term was Aryan), and the circumstances that brought about its disappearance constitute the subject of this volume."
^ Anidjar 2008, стр. 6: "To a large extent, or rather, to a quite complete extent, Semites were, like their ever so distant relatives – the Aryans – a concrete figment of the Western imagination, the peculiar imagination that concerns me in the chapters that follow. And just as the witches (the simultaneous efficacy and deep unreliability of "spectral evidence"), Semites were – I write in the past tense because Semites are a thing of the past, ephemeral beings long vanished as such – Semites were, then, something of a hypothesis (Chapter 1), contemporary with, and constitutive of, that other powerfully incarnate fiction named "secularism" (Chapter 2). Again, and as underscored by Edward Said, who raIsed anew the "Semitic question", the role of the imagination can hardly be downplayed."
^ ^а ^б Lewis, Bernard (1987). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0393304206. „The confusion between race and language goes back a long way, and was compounded by the rapidly changing content of the word "race" in European and later in American usage. Serious scholars have pointed out–repeatedly and ineffectually-‑that "Semitic" is a linguistic and cultural classification, denoting certain languages and in some contexts the literatures and civilizations expressed in those languages. As a kind of shorthand, it was sometimes retained to designate the speakers of those languages. At one time it might thus have had a connotation of race, when that word itself was used to designate national and cultural entities. It has nothing whatever to do with race in the anthropological sense that is now common usage. A glance at the present‑day speakers of Arabic, from Khartoum to Aleppo and from Mauritania to Mosul, or even of Hebrew speakers in the modern state of Israel, will suffice to show the enormous diversity of racial types.”
^ Baasten, Martin (2003). „A Note on the History of 'Semitic'”. Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters Publishers. стр. 57—73. ISBN 9789042912151.
^ The Races of Europe by Carleton Stevens Coon. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World – Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."
^ "Semite". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.
^ „Anti-Semitism”. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. 8. 5. 2023.
^ Reprinted G. Karpeles (ed.), Steinthal H., Ueber Juden und Judentum, Berlin 1918, pp. 91 ff.
^ Published in the Journal Asiatique, 1859
^ Alex Bein (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. стр. 594. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1. – quoting the Hebrew Encyclopaedia Ozar Ysrael, (edited Jehuda Eisenstadt. London. 2: 130ff. 1924. Недостаје или је празан параметар |title= (помоћ)
^ Zimmermann, Moshe. Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press. . USA, 1987
^ Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World. Brill Archive. стр. 1—2. ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. „It has long been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid (Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-Judaism is often preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact that it concerns the attitude to the Jews and avoids any suggestion of racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to speak of anti-Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt (1933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot moderne qui implique une théorie des races".”
^ Zimmermann, Moshe (5. 3. 1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press, USA. стр. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. „The term 'anti-Semitism' was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the 'Anti-Chancellor League,' which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of 'anti' and 'league,' and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term 'Jew' for 'Semite' which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form 'Sem' is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.”

Литература

Anidjar, Gil (2008). Semites: Race, Religion, Literature. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-5694-5.
Liverani, Mario (јануар 1995). „Semites”. Ур.: Geoffrey W. Bromiley. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. стр. 387—392. ISBN 978-0-8028-3784-4.
„Adoption of the Working Definition”. American Jewish Committee. 2022. Приступљено 17. 7. 2022.
Bein, Alex (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Превод: Harry Zohn. Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 978-0-8386-3252-9.
Consonni, Manuela (2022). „'Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism'”. Society. 59 (1): 25—33. S2CID 247172627. doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4.
Chanes, Jerome A. (2004). Antisemitism: a Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-209-7.
Falk, Avner (2008). Anti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-313-35384-0.
Flannery, Edward H. (1985). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism. Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5.
Flannery, Edward H. (2004). The Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism. Mahwah, NY: Paulist Press. ISBN 978-0-8091-4324-5.
Foxman, Abraham (2010). Jews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-230-11225-4.
Frank, Daniel H.; Leaman, Oliver (2003). The Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65574-9.
Harzig, Christiane; Hoerder, Dirk; Shubert, Adrian (2003). The historical practice of diversity : transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-377-2.
Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-06-091533-9.
Johnston, William (1983). The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04955-0.
Judaken, Jonathan (2018). „Introduction”. The American Historical Review. 123 (4): 1122—1138. doi:10.1093/ahr/rhy024.
Laqueur, Walter (2006). The Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day (1st изд.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530429-9.
Levy, Richard S., ур. (2005). Antisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4.
Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 978-0-393-31839-5.
Lipstadt, Deborah (2019). Antisemitism: Here and Now. Schocken Books. ISBN 978-0-80524337-6.
Lipstadt, Deborah (1994). Denying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-452-27274-3.
Laurens, Henry (2002). La Question de Palestine. II. Fayard.
Majer, Diemut (2014). "Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945. Texas Tech University Press. ISBN 978-0896728370.
McLellan, David (1980). Marx before Marxism (PDF) (2d изд.). London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-27883-3. Архивирано (PDF) из оригинала 2022-10-09. г.
Michael, Robert (2008). A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church (на језику: енглески). Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-61117-7. Приступљено 15. 3. 2021.
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Perry, Marvin; Schweitzer, Frederick M. (2005). Antisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present. New York, NY: Palgrave. ISBN 978-0-312-16561-1.
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Anti-semitism Архивирано 21 септембар 2011 на сајту Wayback Machine entry by Gotthard Deutsch in the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1901–1906 ed.

Спољашње везе

Semitic genetics
Semitic language family tree included under "Afro-Asiatic" in SIL's Ethnologue.
„The south Arabian origin of ancient Arabs”. JSTOR 528139.
The Edomite Hyksos connection Архивирано 6 октобар 2012 на сајту Wayback Machine
„The perished Arabs”. JSTOR 3318071.
The Midianites of the north
Ancient Semitic peoples (video)

[1] Einleitung in die synchronistische universalhistorie, Gatterer, 1771. Described first ethnic use of the term Semitic by: (1) A note on the history of 'Semitic', 2003, by Martin Baasten; and (2) Taal-, land- en volkenkunde in de achttiende eeuw, 1994, by Han Vermeulen (in Dutch).

[FOOTNOTELiverani1995392-2] Liverani1995, стр. 392: "A more critical look at this complex of problems should advise employing today the term and the concept "Semites" exclusively in its linguistic sense, and, on the other hand, tracing back every cultural fact to its concrete historical environment. The use of the term "Semitic" in culture, subject as it is to arbitrary simplifications, shows methodological risks which exceed by far the possibility of positive historical analysis. In any case the Semitic character of every cultural fact is a problem which in each situation must be ascenained in its limits and in its historical setting (both in time and in the social environment), and may not be assumed as obvious or traced back to a presumed "Proto-Semitic" culture, statically conceived."

[Lutz-3] On the use of the terms “(anti-)Semitic” and “(anti-) Zionist” in modern Middle Eastern discourse, Orientalia Suecana LXI Suppl. (2012) by Lutz Eberhard Edzard: "In linguistics context, the term "Semitic" is generally speaking non-controversial... As an ethnic term, "Semitic" should best be avoided these days, in spite of ongoing genetic research (which also is supported by the Israeli scholarly community itself) that tries to scientifically underpin such a concept."

[Pope-4] Review of "The Canaanites" (1964) by Marvin Pope: "The term "Semitic," coined by Schlozer in 1781, should be strictly limited to linguistic matters since this is the only area in which a degree of objectivity is attainable. The Semitic languages comprise a fairly distinct linguistic family, a fact appreciated long before the relationship of the Indo-European languages was recognized. The ethnography and ethnology of the various peoples who spoke or still speak Semitic languages or dialects is a much more mixed and confused matter and one over which we have little scientific control."

[GlöcknerFireberg2015-5] Glöckner, Olaf; Fireberg, Haim (25. 9. 2015). Being Jewish in 21st-Century Germany. De Gruyter. стр. 200. ISBN 978-3-11-035015-9. „...there is no Semitic ethnicity, only Semitic languages”

[FOOTNOTEAnidjar2008(Foreword)-6] Anidjar 2008, стр. (Foreword): "This collection of essays explores the now mostly extinct notion of Semites. Invented in the nineteenth century and essential to the making of modern conceptions of religion and race, the strange unity of Jew and Arab under one term, Semite (the opposing term was Aryan), and the circumstances that brought about its disappearance constitute the subject of this volume."

[FOOTNOTEAnidjar20086-7] Anidjar 2008, стр. 6: "To a large extent, or rather, to a quite complete extent, Semites were, like their ever so distant relatives – the Aryans – a concrete figment of the Western imagination, the peculiar imagination that concerns me in the chapters that follow. And just as the witches (the simultaneous efficacy and deep unreliability of "spectral evidence"), Semites were – I write in the past tense because Semites are a thing of the past, ephemeral beings long vanished as such – Semites were, then, something of a hypothesis (Chapter 1), contemporary with, and constitutive of, that other powerfully incarnate fiction named "secularism" (Chapter 2). Again, and as underscored by Edward Said, who raIsed anew the "Semitic question", the role of the imagination can hardly be downplayed."

[Lewis-8] а ^б Lewis, Bernard (1987). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W W Norton & Co Inc. ISBN 978-0393304206. „The confusion between race and language goes back a long way, and was compounded by the rapidly changing content of the word "race" in European and later in American usage. Serious scholars have pointed out–repeatedly and ineffectually-‑that "Semitic" is a linguistic and cultural classification, denoting certain languages and in some contexts the literatures and civilizations expressed in those languages. As a kind of shorthand, it was sometimes retained to designate the speakers of those languages. At one time it might thus have had a connotation of race, when that word itself was used to designate national and cultural entities. It has nothing whatever to do with race in the anthropological sense that is now common usage. A glance at the present‑day speakers of Arabic, from Khartoum to Aleppo and from Mauritania to Mosul, or even of Hebrew speakers in the modern state of Israel, will suffice to show the enormous diversity of racial types.”

[9] Baasten, Martin (2003). „A Note on the History of 'Semitic'”. Hamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday. Peeters Publishers. стр. 57—73. ISBN 9789042912151.

[10] The Races of Europe by Carleton Stevens Coon. From Chapter XI: The Mediterranean World – Introduction: "This third racial zone stretches from Spain across the Straits of Gibraltar to Morocco, and thence along the southern Mediterranean shores into Arabia, East Africa, Mesopotamia, and the Persian highlands; and across Afghanistan into India."

[11] "Semite". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition.

[12] „Anti-Semitism”. Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Eleventh Edition. 8. 5. 2023.

[13] Reprinted G. Karpeles (ed.), Steinthal H., Ueber Juden und Judentum, Berlin 1918, pp. 91 ff.

[14] Published in the Journal Asiatique, 1859

[15] Alex Bein (1990). The Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. стр. 594. ISBN 0-8386-3252-1. – quoting the Hebrew Encyclopaedia Ozar Ysrael, (edited Jehuda Eisenstadt. London. 2: 130ff. 1924. Недостаје или је празан параметар |title= (помоћ)

[16] Zimmermann, Moshe. Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press. . USA, 1987

[Sevenster1975-17] Sevenster, Jan Nicolaas (1975). The Roots of Pagan Anti-Semitism in the Ancient World. Brill Archive. стр. 1—2. ISBN 978-90-04-04193-6. „It has long been realised that there are objections to the term anti-Semitism and therefore an endeavour has been made to find a word which better interprets the meaning intended. Already in 1936 Bolkestein, for example, wrote an article on Het "antisemietisme" in de oudheid (Anti-Semitism in the ancient world) in which the word was placed between quotation marks and a preference was expressed for the term hatred of the Jews… Nowadays the term anti-Judaism is often preferred. It certainly expresses better than anti-Semitism the fact that it concerns the attitude to the Jews and avoids any suggestion of racial distinction, which was not or hardly, a factor of any significance in ancient times. For this reason Leipoldt preferred to speak of anti-Judaism when writing his Antisemitsmus in der alten Welt (1933). Bonsirven also preferred this word to Anti-Semitism, "mot moderne qui implique une théorie des races".”

[MZ1987-18] Zimmermann, Moshe (5. 3. 1987). Wilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism. Oxford University Press, USA. стр. 112. ISBN 978-0-19-536495-8. „The term 'anti-Semitism' was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the 'Anti-Chancellor League,' which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of 'anti' and 'league,' and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term 'Jew' for 'Semite' which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form 'Sem' is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period.”

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