19世纪的思想家赫伯特·斯宾塞创建了关注社会组织的术语超机体现象(在他所著的《社会学原理》中,第一章的标题是“超机体的演化”[4]),尽管这显然是在生物和社会之间的对比,而不是共同点:斯宾塞探究将整体性的社会看作为一个社会有机体,并区别方法。其中,社会并不表现得像一个生物。[5]对斯宾塞来说,超机体现象是相互作用的生物体(即人类)涌现出来的属性。而且,正如D. C. Phillips所表明的,存在一个“在涌现和还原论之间的区别”。[6]
If Col. Thorpe [of the US DARPA] has his way, the four divisions of the US military and hundreds of industrial subcontractors will become a single interconnected superorganism. The immediate step to this world of distributed intelligence is an engineering protocol developed by a consortium of defense simulation centers in Orlando Florida ...
^The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1, Part 1. "The Data of Sociology", Herbert Spencer, 1876
^The Principles of Sociology, Vol. 1, Part 2, Chapter II, "A Society Is an Organism" (sections 222 and 223), Herbert Spencer, 1876
^Holistic Thought in Social Science, D. C. Phillips, Stanford University Press, 1976, p. 123
^Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, Carl Menger, Louis Schneider (translator), New York University Press, 1985
^The Political Philosophy of Herbert Spencer, Tim S. Gray, 1996, p. 211
^Patterns of Culture, Ruth Benedict, Houghton Mifflin, 1934, p. 231