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Ahmad Shah Durrani
Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (Pashto: احمد شاه دراني; Persian: احمد شاه درانی), also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī (Pashto: احمد شاه ابدالي), was the first Shah and founder of the Durrani Empire, and is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan. Throughout his reign, Ahmad Shah fought over fifteen major military campaigns. Nine of them being centered in India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan.[2] Historians widely recognize Ahmad Shah as a brilliant military leader and tactician, typically being compared to rulers such as Mahmud of Ghazni, Babur, and as well as Nader Shah.[3][4] Gupta refers to Ahmad Shah as the "greatest general of Asia of his time".[5] Name and titleHis birth name was Ahmad Khan, born into the Abdali tribe. After his accession to power in 1747, he became known as Ahmad Shah. His tribe also changed the name from Abdali, instead becoming the Durrani.[6][7][8] Afghans often call him Ahmad Shāh Bābā, meaning "Ahmad Shah the Father".[9][10] In historical sources, his tribe name is interchangeably used between Abdali and Durrani, with other common names for him being Ahmad Shah Abdali.[6][11] Early lifeAhmad Shah was born between 1720 and 1722 in either Herat, Afghanistan, or Multan, Pakistan. Sources are disputed on where he was born.[12] Contemporary scholarship came to the consensus that Ahmad Shah was born in Multan, but this is disputed by Nejatie, who states that the majority of sources from Ahmad Shah's time state that he was born in Herat, rather than Multan, including the Tarikh-i Ahmad Shahi.[13] His father, Zaman Khan, was the ruler of the Sadozai Sultanate of Herat. Zaman Khan had died in 1721, leading to Ahmad Shah being raised alongside his brother Zulfiqar Khan in Shindand and Farah. In the mid 1720s, Zulfiqar Khan was invited to rule Herat. Nothing else is heard of Ahmad Shah until 1731–1732, when Zulfiqar Khan was defeated by Nader Shah, forcing both Zulfiqar Khan and Ahmad Shah to flee to Kandahar, where they remained political prisoners of Hussain Hotak.[14][15][16] After Nader Shah conquered Kandahar, Ahmad Shah and Zulfiqar Khan were freed. Ahmad Shah spent much of his early life in the service of Nader Shah. Accompanying him on his invasion of India, Ahmad Shah was later resettled in Mazandaran alongside his brother. Iranica states that Ahmad Shah may have become the governor of Mazandaran.[8] After the death of his brother, Ahmad Shah enlisted in the Afsharid military in 1742. Some sources suggest that it was only Zulfiqar Khan that left for Mazandaran, while Ahmad Shah remained in Nader Shah's service as an officer.[17][18][19] During Nader Shah's invasion of India, Ahmad Shah personally commanded a regiment of Durrani tribesmen. Ahmad Shah's forces committed massacres and sacked Delhi alongside Nader Shah's forces in 1739.[20] According to legend, Nizam ul-Mulk, the Mughal governor of Hyderabad, who was an expert in physiognomy, predicted that Ahmad Shah would become king. Nader Shah took notice of this and also believed in the prophecy, supposedly clipping a piece of Ahmad Shah's ears, and remarking "When you become a king, this will remind you of me". Nader Shah also requested that Ahmad Shah be generous with his descendants.[21][22] Nejatie is skeptical of the account.[23] In 1744, Ahmad Shah was promoted to a personal staff of Nader Shah. In a campaign against the Ottomans, Ahmad Shah distinguished himself and was allowed to raise a contingent of 3–4,000 Durrani tribesmen by Nader Shah. Ahmad Shah's contingent became one of Nader Shah's most trusted, utilizing them to shatter the power of his other commanders due to his perception that they were planning to rebel or kill him.[24][7] Death of Nader ShahIn June 1747, Nader Shah was convinced that his personal guard intended to assassinate him. As a result, he summoned Ahmad Shah and other loyal commanders. Nader Shah ordered Ahmad Shah to assemble his Durrani regiments, and to arrest his personal guard. If the personal guard resisted, Ahmad Shah was given permission to kill them all. He was ordered to do this at first light. Nader Shah then chose to sleep with his favorite wife, but did so outside the royal tent, where the same guards he accused of treachery presumed night duty, while Ahmad Shah with his regiments were established at the defenses of the camp.[25] News of Nader Shah's plan leaked, with the conspirators being forced to act. Four conspirators entered the royal enclosure and entered Nader Shah's tent, assassinating him.[26][27] Chaos ensued following the assassination, and plans to coverup by the conspirators failed. They resorted to pillaging the royal enclosure while news of Nader Shah's death rapidly spread. The next morning, the royal guard attacked Ahmad Shah's forces, who despite being heavily outnumbered, drove the Persians and Qizilbash off. Ahmad Shah then entered the tent of Nader Shah, taking the Koh-i-Noor diamond and a signet ring from his body.[28][29] Return to KandaharHaving driven off the Persians and Qizilbash, Ahmad Shah departed for Kandahar with his regiments, and his Uzbek ally, Hajji Bi Ming. Ahmad Shah first settled the dispute of leadership, asserting himself as the leader of Durrani tribesmen by forcing the former leader to step down. Ahmad Shah also killed 'Abd al-Ghani Khan, his uncle and the governor of Kandahar to secure complete power over the Durrani regiments. With the dispute over leadership concluded, Ahmad Shah's forces grew to 6,000 Afghans.[30] Following this, Ahmad Shah moved through Khabushan, advancing to Kashmar. While on-route, Ahmad Shah accumulated supplies for his army and proceeded toward Torbat-e Heydarieh, where they received news that Adel Shah had sent a force to halt the Afghans. As a result, Ahmad Shah led his forces to Tun and then Farah, where they defeated an army sent by Adel Shah. With Farah under his control, the Afghans proceeded to Grishk, and then Kandahar.[31][30] While on-route to Kandahar, Ahmad Shah recovered a military convoy that contained the annual tribute from Sindh. The value of the treasure is disputed, but it's given within an estimate of 3,000,000–260,000,000 rupees. The convoy was escorted by Mohammad Taqi Khan Shirazi, a disgruntled former officer of Nader Shah, and Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul and Peshawar. Taqi Khan joined Ahmad Shah and divided the wealth, while Nasir Khan refused and was imprisoned. Later, he was ransomed on the conditions of an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees, and that he would enter Ahmad Shah's suzerainty. The army of Ahmad Shah grew to over 18,000 men, also including war elephants.[32][33][34] Accession and coronation Upon reaching Kandahar, Ahmad Shah established camp in Naderabad and prepared to be crowned as King. According to legend, Ahmad Shah declared a Jirga, summoning all tribal leaders who unanimously selected Ahmad Shah as king. A piece of wheat or barley was then placed on Ahmad Shah's turban.[35] Singh cites this account, despite there being no contemporary evidence to suggest this occurred.[36] In reality, Ahmad Shah was brought to power through a nine man military council. Ahmad Shah's accession was further disputed by Jamal Khan, the leader of the Barakzai tribe. The Barakzai were the most powerful clan of the Durranis centered in the Kandahar and Helmand regions. The dispute over accession continued until an agreement was made where Jamal Khan would submit to Ahmad Shah as king, while Ahmad Shah would make Jamal Khan and his descendants Wazir. With an agreement reached, Sabir Shah, Ahmad Shah's advisor, took a piece of greenery or stalk and attached it to Ahmad Shah's cap, officially crowning him. Scholars state that Ahmad Shah's rise to power was effectively a military coup, rather than an election.[37] Following his accession, Ahmad Shah adopted the epithet "Durr-i Durrān", meaning "Pearl of Pearls", also changing his tribes name from Abdali to Durrani.[38][39][7] Reign as Shah (1747–1772)AdministrationAt the beginning of his rule, Ahmad Shah's empire consisted of Kandahar, Helmand, and Farah. The Hazaras of the Bala Murghab and Nasir Khan I of Kalat also rested under Afghan suzerainty.[40] However, Ahmad Shah had no administrative experience, nor did much of his closest advisors. As a result, he chose to adopt a government style similar to the Mughals and Safavids, with his main idea of a government based off an absolute monarchy. A tribal council ruled in hand with Ahmad Shah as well, serving as a form of cabinet. However, Ahmad Shah had made the positions of his cabinet hereditary, thus making it difficult to dismiss advisors without causing conflict. Their roles, however, were mostly purely de-jure, and tasks were delegated to subordinates.[41] The civil service of the empire was dominated by the Qizilbash, as most of the Durrani elite were illiterate. The Qizilbash also significantly formed the major port of Ahmad Shah's bodyguard,[42] counterbalancing other Durrani leaders and tribes. The complications and effectively divided government made the administration difficult to function, and caused ethnic tension between the Qizilbash and tribal council of Ahmad Shah.[43] Further complications erupted in Ahmad Shah's administration over exempting his own tribe from taxation. Other Afghan tribes and ethnicities were discontent from such, as they were also devoid of being allowed to serve in the administration of the empire. This was further exasperated by Ahmad Shah when he gave the right of revenue collection to the highest bidder. The victors of these auctions, typically members of Ahmad Shah's own tribe, were completely free in taxing as much as they wished. While members of the Durrani tribe rapidly became rich, some landholders were forced into complete debt, forcing many to sell their lands or flee the kingdom, likely being bought up by the Durranis who had driven them to bankruptcy.[43] Ahmad Shah instead focused on seeing himself as the successor of Nader Shah. Instead of establishing a capable administration, Ahmad Shah focused on wars and military campaigns to supply his treasury, with any downturns easily being covered by the treasures of war. Throughout his reign, he rarely spent his time in Kandahar, the capital of his empire,[8] and instead pursued military campaigns, returning only to restore stability after conflict. By the end of his reign, Ahmad Shah committed to over fifteen military campaigns, Nine of them being centered in India, three in Khorasan, and three in Afghan Turkestan.[44] ObjectivesAfghanistan was a relatively poor country. As a result, Ahmad Shah, following in the footsteps of conquerors before him such as Mahmud of Ghazni,[45] and invaded India to plunder and obtain wealth. Relating as well from Muhammad of Ghor, Ahmad Shah invaded India to also establish his own political dominance, as the power vacuum following the decline of the Mughal Empire allowed him to repeat extensive campaigns, while also reviving the prominence of Afghans in India. Furthermore, By institutionalizing the casus belli of holy war, Ahmad Shah was able to direct the majority of his campaigns toward India.[46] Military campaignsCampaign to Kabul (1747)Weeks after Ahmad Shah's accession, Nasir Khan, the governor of Kabul, Ghazni, and Peshawar revolted against him. Ahmad Shah previously imprisoned Nasir Khan and ransomed him for an annual tribute of 500,000 rupees, and while Nasir Khan was attempting to raise this amount, the Ghilzai tribes refused to pay their taxes toward the Durranis, and only wished to do so to their Mughal sovereign, Muhammad Shah. With a growing Ghilzai revolt, Nasir Khan declared his independence from Durrani suzerainty and began raising an army of Uzbeks and Hazaras, while also frantically asking Muhammad Shah for aid.[2][47] In Autumn of 1747, Ahmad Shah began his campaign against Nasir Khan. Appointing his nephew Luqman Khan as the regent in Kandahar while he left on campaign, Ahmad Shah marched his army toward Ghazni only to be halted at Qalati Ghilji by his former allies, the Tokhi Ghilzai. Ahmad Shah stormed the fortress of Qalat, bringing the Tokhis to submission and annexing their lands over the following decades.[2] Ahmad Shah continued to Ghazni, defeating the governor established there and conquering it with little opposition.[47][48] Before advancing on Kabul, Ahmad Shah garnered the support of the Suleimankhel tribes in the region, while Taqi Khan managed to procure the defection of the Qizilbash garrison in Kabul, so that once the Afghan army would arrive, they'd hand over the city. The acceptance of these terms forced Nasir Khan to flee to Peshawar, and when Ahmad Shah arrived at Kabul in October 1747, the Qizilbash handed over the Bala Hissar fortress. Ahmad Shah awarded the Qizilbash by giving them districts in Chindawol and Murad Khani.[2][49][50] First invasion of India (1747–1748)With Kabul under his control, Ahmad Shah dispatched his Commander-in-chief, Jahan Khan, toward Peshawar with the intention of advancing as far as Attock. Jahan Khan quickly overran Jalalabad, and Nasir Khan was unable to create a significant defense at the Khyber Pass, forcing him to flee. The Afghan armies approached Peshawar, prompting many Pashtun tribes to declare for them, such as the Yusufzai, Afridi, and Khattak. With Nasir Khan overwhelmed, he completely withdrew from Peshawar and fled to Delhi.[51][52] Shah Nawaz Khan, the Mughal governor of the Punjab, opened correspondence with the Afghans after they had seized Peshawar. Shah Nawaz, having toppled his brother from power to assume control over the Punjab itself, was opposed by the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, who refused to recognize him as governor. As a result, the Afghans promised Shah Nawaz the position of governor of the Punjab if he accepted Durrani suzerainty. Shah Nawaz accepted this before the Mughal vizier promised to confirm him as governor if he opposed the Afghan invasion instead, which Shah Nawaz accepted.[53][54][55] The betrayal saw Ahmad Shah dispatch Sabir Shah to try and convince Shah Nawaz once again. However, after diplomatically insulting Shah Nawaz, Sabir Shah was imprisoned and executed, and Shah Nawaz began marching against the Afghan army.[56][57][58] Ahmad Shah crossed the Ravi River on 10 January, and established himself at the Shalimar Gardens, outside of Lahore. The armies of Shah Nawaz and Ahmad Shah began battle on 11 January, and as the battle began, the Afghan regiments of Shah Nawaz's army defected. Despite commanding a much larger army then the Afghans, the Mughals were utterly defeated, and Shah Nawaz fled to Delhi.[59][60][61] With the defeat of the Mughals, the Afghans entered Lahore, plundering and massacring the city. Thousands were also conscripted into the Afghan army, while the Mughals began mobilizing a larger army. Ahmad Shah left Lahore on 19 February with his army, beginning to advance on Delhi. The Afghans captured Sirhind and pressed the advance, outmaneuvering Mughal forces until they were caught at Manupur, where they battled. The Afghan army pressed the attack until a catastrophe occurred in the form that the ammunition stores of the Afghan army caught fire and exploded, incinerating 1,000 men, and forcing a complete withdrawal from the battlefield.[62][63][64] The Mughals did not pursue the Afghan army due to the death of Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah, and turmoil in the camp.[65] Withdrawing to Lahore, Ahmad Shah became aware that his nephew, Luqman Khan, who had been left as regent in Kandahar while he embarked on campaign, had revolted. Ahmad Shah immediately returned to Afghanistan, and marched on Kandahar. The revolt was quickly quelled, and Ahmad Shah spent the summer of 1748 preparing for his second invasion of India.[66][67][68] Second invasion of India (1748–1749)First Khorasan campaign (1749–1751)Third invasion of India (1751–1752)Second Khorasan campaign (1754–1755)Fourth invasion of India (1756–1757)Fifth invasion of India (1759–1761)Sixth invasion of India (1762)Seventh invasion of India (1764–1765)Eighth invasion of India (1766–1767)Final invasion of India (1768–1769)Third Khorasan campaign (1770)Turkestan campaignsPoetryDurrani wrote a collection of odes in his native Pashto. He was also the author of several poems in Persian. One of his most famous Pashto poems was Love of a Nation:[71][72][73]
In popular culture
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