Situated in the Valley of Peshawar, a broad area situated east of the historic Khyber Pass, Peshawar's recorded history dates back to at least 539 BCE, making it one of the oldest cities in South Asia.[13][14] The area encompassing modern-day Peshawar is mentioned in the Vedic scriptures; it was one of the principal cities of the ancient Gāndhāra. Peshawar served as the capital of the Kushan Empire during the rule of Kanishka[15][16][17] and was home to the Kanishka Stupa, which was among the tallest buildings in the ancient world.[18]
Peshawar was then ruled by the Hephthalites, followed by the Hindu Shahis, before the arrival of a variety of Muslim empires. The city was an important trading Centre of the Mughal Empire before becoming part of the Durrani Empire in 1747, after which it served as the Durrani winter capital from 1776 until the capture of the city by the Sikh Empire in 1823. In 1849, the city was captured by the East India Company and subsequently became part of British Raj, under whose rule it remained until the Partition of British India and subsequent independence of Pakistan in 1947.
Etymology
A vintage photo postcard of the main street, Peshawar. Digitized by Panjab Digital Library.
The modern name of the city "Peshawar" is possibly derived from the [reconstructed] Sanskrit word "Purushapura" (Sanskrit: पुरूषपुरPuruṣapura, meaning "City of Men" or "City of Purusha").[19][20][21] It was named so by Mughal Emperor Akbar from its old name Parashawar, the meaning of which Akbar did not understand.[22][23] The ruler of the city during its founding may have been a Hindu raja (king) named Purush; the word pur means "city" in Sanskrit.[24][25][26] Sanskrit, written in the Kharosthi script, was the literary language employed by the Buddhist kingdoms which ruled over the area during its earliest recorded period.[27] The city's name may also be derived from the Sanskrit name for "City of Flowers," Poshapura, a name found in an ancient Kharosthi inscription that may refer to Peshawar.[28]
Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang's seventh-century account of a city in Gandhara called the city Po-la-sha-pu-lo (Chinese: 布路沙布邏, bùlùshābùló), and an earlier fifth-century account by Fa-Hien records the city's name as Fou-lou-sha (Chinese: 弗樓沙, fùlóshā), the Chinese equivalent of the Sanskrit name of the city, Purushapura.[29][30] An ancient inscription from the Shapur era identifies a city in the Gandhara valley by the name pskbvr, which may be a reference to Peshawar.[31]
The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid-tenth century, the city was known as Parashāwar. The name was noted to be Purshawar and Purushavar by Al-Biruni.[32]
The city began to be known as Peshāwar by the era of Emperor Akbar.[33] The current name is said by some to have been based upon the Persian for "frontier town"[33] or, more literally, "forward city", though transcription errors and linguistic shifts may account for the city's new name. One theory suggests that the city's name is derived from the Persian name "Pesh Awardan", meaning "place of first arrival" or "frontier city", as Peshawar was the first city in the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Khyber Pass.[34][35] Akbar's bibliographer, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, lists the city's name as both Parashāwar, transcribed in Persian as پَرَشَاوَر,[36] and Peshāwar (پشاور).[37]
Peshawar alongside the modern day Ghandara region were found in the Vedic Scripture as Pushkalavati.[38]
Foundation
Peshawar was founded as the city of Puruṣapura,[19][39][40] on the Gandhara Plains in the broad Valley of Peshawar in 100 CE.[41][42] It may have been named after a Hindu raja who ruled the city who was known as Purush.[24] The city likely first existed as a small village in the fifth century BCE,[43] within the cultural sphere of ancient India.[44] Puruṣapura was founded near the ancient Gandharan capital city of Pushkalavati, near present-day Charsadda.[45][21]
The nearby Takht-i-Bahi monastery was established in 46 CE,[49] and was once a major centre of Buddhist learning.
Following the Seleucid–Mauryan war, the region was ceded to the Mauryan Empire in 303 BCE.[citation needed] Around 300 BCE, the Greek diplomat and historian Megasthenes noted that Purushapura (ancient Peshawar) was the western terminus of a Mauryan road that connected the city to the empire's capital at Pataliputra, near the city of Patna in the modern-day Indian state of Bihar.[50][51]
In the first century of the Common era, Purushapura came under control of Kujula Kadphises, founder of the Kushan Empire.[52] The city was made the empire's winter capital.[53][failed verification] The Kushan's summer capital at Kapisi (modern Bagram, Afghanistan)[54] was seen as the secondary capital of the empire,[53] while Puruṣapura was considered to be the empire's primary capital.[53] Ancient Peshawar's population was estimated to be 120,000, which would make it the seventh-most populous city in the world at the time.[55][43] As a devout Buddhist, the emperor built the grand Kanishka Mahavihara monastery.[56] After his death, the magnificent Kanishka stupa was built in Peshawar to house Buddhist relics. The golden age of Kushan empire in Peshawar ended in 232 CE with the death of the last great Kushan king, Vasudeva I.
Around 260 CE, the armies of the Sasanid Emperor Shapur I launched an attack against Peshawar,[57] and severely damaged Buddhist monuments and monasteries throughout the Valley of Peshawar.[43] Shapur's campaign also resulted in damage to the city's monumental stupa and monastery.[43] The Kushans were made subordinate to the Sasanids and their power rapidly dwindled,[58] as the Sasanids blocked lucrative trade routes westward out of the city.[43]
Kushan Emperor Kanishka III was able to temporarily reestablish control over the entire Valley of Peshawar after Shapur's invasion,[43] but the city was then captured by the Central Asian Kidarite kingdom in the early 400s CE.[59]
White Huns
The White Huns devastated ancient Peshawar in the 460s CE,[60] and ravaged the entire region of Gandhara, destroying its numerous monasteries.[61] The Kanishka stupa was rebuilt during the White Hun era with the construction of a tall wooden superstructure, built atop a stone base,[53] and crowned with a 13-layer copper-gildedchatra.[53] In the 400s CE, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrimFaxian visited the structure and described it as "the highest of all the towers" in the "terrestrial world",[53] which ancient travelers claimed was up to 560 ft (170 m) tall,[53] though modern estimates suggest a height of 400 ft (120 m).[53]
In 520 CE the Chinese monk Song Yun visited Gandhara and ancient Peshawar during the White Hun era, and noted that it was in conflict with nearby Kapisa.[62][63] The Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang visited ancient Peshawar around 630 CE,[64] after Kapisa victory, and expressed lament that the city and its great Buddhist monuments had decayed to ruin[65]—although some monks studying Theravada Buddhism continued to study at the monastery's ruins.[66] Xuanzang estimated that only about 1,000 families continued in a small quarter among the ruins of the former grand capital.[61]
Medieval history
Clock Tower Peshawar
Until the mid seventh century, the residents of ancient Peshawar had a ruling elite of Central Asian Scythian descent,[62] who were then displaced by the Hindu Shahis of Kabul.[62]
Islam is believed to have been first introduced to the Buddhist, Hindu and other indigenous inhabitants of Puruṣapura in the later seventh century.
As the first Pashtun tribe to settle the region, the Dilazak Pashtuns began settling in the Valley of Peshawar,[67] and are believed to have settled regions up to the Indus River by the 11th century.[67] The Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi noted that by the mid tenth century, the city had become known as Parashāwar.
In 986–87 CE, Peshawar's first encounter with Muslim armies occurred when Sabuktigin invaded the area and fought the Hindu Shahis under their king, Anandpal.[33]
During the Ghaznavid era, Peshawar served as an important stop between the Afghan plateau, and the Ghaznavid garrison city of Lahore.[33] During the tenth–12th century, Peshawar served as a headquarters for Hindu Nath Panthi Yogis,[54] who in turn are believed to have extensively interacted with Muslim Sufi mystics.[54]
Delhi sultanate
In 1179–80, Muhammad Ghori captured Peshawar, though the city was then destroyed in the early 1200s at the hands of the Mongols.[33] Peshawar was an important regional centre under the Lodi dynasty of Delhi Sultanate.
The Ghoryakhel Pashtuns Khalil, Muhmands, Daudzai, Chamkani tribes and some Khashi KhelPashtuns, ancestors of modern-day Yusufzai and Gigyani Pashtuns, began settling rural regions around Peshawar in the late 15th and 16th centuries.[69] The Ghoryakhel and Khashi Khel tribe pushed the Dilazak Pashtun tribes east of the Indus River following a battle in 1515 near the city of Mardan.[69]
Early modern history
Mughal empire
Bestowed by Mohabbat Khan bin Ali Mardan Khan in 1630, the white-marble façade of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is one of Peshawar's most iconic sights.The interior of the Mohabbat Khan Mosque is elaborately frescoed with elegant and intricately detailed floral and geometric motifs.
Peshawar remained an important centre on trade routes between India and Central Asia. The Peshawar region was a cosmopolitan region in which goods, peoples, and ideas would pass along trade routes.[70] Its importance as a trade centre is highlighted by the destruction of over one thousand camel-loads of merchandise following an accidental fire at Bala Hissar fort in 1586.[70] Mughal rule in the area was tenuous, as Mughal suzerainty was only firmly exercised in the Peshawar valley, while the neighbouring valley of Swat was under Mughal rule only during the reign of Akbar.[71]
In July 1526, Emperor Babur captured Peshawar from Daulat Khan Lodi.[72] During Babur's rule, the city was known as Begram, and he rebuilt the city's fort.[73] Babur used the city as a base for expeditions to other nearby towns in Pashtunistan.[33]
Under the reign of Babur's son, Humayun, direct Mughal rule over the city was briefly challenged with the rise of the Pashtun king, Sher Shah Suri, who began construction of the famous Grand Trunk Road in the 16th century. Peshawar was an important trading centre on Sher Shah Suri's Grand Trunk Road.[51] During Akbar's rule, the name of the city changed from Begram to Peshawar.[33] In 1586, Pashtuns rose against Mughal rule during the Roshani Revolt under the leadership of Bayazid Pir Roshan,[74] founder of the egalitarian Roshani movement, who assembled Pashtun armies in an attempted rebellion against the Mughals. The Roshani followers laid siege to the city until 1587.[74]
Peshawar was bestowed with its own set of Shalimar Gardens during the reign of Shah Jahan,[75] which no longer exist.
Peshawar's Sunehri Mosque dates from the Mughal era.
Yusufzai tribes rose against Mughal rule during the Yusufzai Revolt of 1667,[70] and engaged in pitched-battles with Mughal battalions nearby Attock.[70]Afridi tribes resisted Mughal rule during the Afridi Revolt of the 1670s.[70] The Afridis massacred a Mughal battalion in the nearby Khyber Pass in 1672 and shut the pass to lucrative trade routes.[76] Mughal armies led by Emperor Aurangzeb himself regained control of the entire area in 1674.[70]
Following Aurangzeb's death in 1707, his son Bahadur Shah I, former Governor of Peshawar and Kabul, was selected to be the Mughal Emperor. As Mughal power declined following the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, the empire's defenses were weakened.[77]
Peshawar's Bala Hissar fort was once the royal residence of the Durrani Afghan kings.
In 1747, Peshawar was taken by Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the Afghan Durrani Empire.[80] Under the reign of his son Timur Shah, the Mughal practice of using Kabul as a summer capital and Peshawar as a winter capital was reintroduced,[33][81] with the practice maintained until the Sikh invasion.[82] Peshawar's Bala Hissar Fort served as the residence of Afghan kings during their winter stay in Peshawar, and it was noted to be the main centre of trade between Bukhara and India by British explorer William Moorcroft during the late 1700s.[83] Peshawar was at the centre of a productive agricultural region that provided much of north India's dried fruit.[83]
Timur Shah's grandson, Mahmud Shah Durrani, became king, and quickly seized Peshawar from his half-brother, Shah Shujah Durrani.[84] Shah Shujah was then himself proclaimed king in 1803, and recaptured Peshawar while Mahmud Shah was imprisoned at Bala Hissar fort until his eventual escape.[84] In 1809, the British sent an emissary to the court of Shah Shujah in Peshawar, marking the first diplomatic meeting between the British and Afghans.[84] His half-brother Mahmud Shah then allied himself with the Barakzai Pashtuns, and captured Peshawar once again and reigned until the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823.[84]
Ranjit Singh invaded Peshawar in 1818, but handed its rule to Peshawar Sardars as vassals.[93][94] Following the Sikh victory against Azim Khan at the Battle of Nowshera in March 1823, Ranjit Singh captured Peshawar again and reinstated Yar Mohammed as the governor.[94][93] By 1830, Peshawar's economy was noted by Scottish explorer Alexander Burnes to have sharply declined,[83] with Ranjit Singh's forces having destroyed the city's palace and agricultural fields.[83]
Much of Peshawar's caravan trade from Kabul ceased on account of skirmishes between Afghan and Sikh forces,[83] as well as a punitive tax levied on merchants by Ranjit Singh's forces.[83] Singh's government also required Peshawar to forfeit much of its leftover agricultural output to the Sikhs as tribute,[83] while agriculture was further decimated by a collapse of the dried fruit market in north India.[83] Singh appointed Neapolitan mercenary Paolo Avitabile as administrator of Peshawar, who is remembered for having unleashed a reign of terror. His time in Peshawar is known as a time of "gallows and gibbets". The city's famous Mahabat Khan, built in 1630 in the Jeweler's Bazaar, was badly damaged and desecrated by the Sikh conquerors.[95]
The Sikh Empire formally annexed Peshawar in 1834 following advances from the armies of Hari Singh Nalwa[93]—bringing the city under direct control of the Sikh Empire's Lahore Durbar.[93] An 1835 attempt by Dost Muhammad Khan to re-occupy the city was unsuccessful after being unable to breach the Peshawar fort's defenses.[96] Sikh settlers from Punjab were settled in the city during Sikh rule. The city's only remaining Gurdwaras were built by Hari Singh Nalwa to accommodate the newly settled Sikhs.[97] The Sikhs also rebuilt the Bala Hissar fort during their occupation of the city.[84]
British Raj
The British-era Islamia College was built in an Indo-Saracenic Revival style.Built for wealthy local merchants in a Central Asian architectural style, the Sethi Mohallah features several homes dating from the British era.
Following the defeat of the Sikhs in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845–46 and the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849, some of their territories were captured by the British East India Company. The British re-established stability in the wake of ruinous Sikh rule.[83] During the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857, the 4,000 members of the native garrison were disarmed without bloodshed;[citation needed] the absence of conflict during the rebellion meant that Peshawar was not affected by the widespread devastation that was experienced throughout the rest of British India and local chieftains sided with the British after the incident.[98]
The British laid out the vast Peshawar Cantonment to the west of the city in 1868, and made the city its frontier headquarters.[99] Additionally, several projects were initiated in Peshawar, including linkage of the city by railway to the rest of British India and renovation of the Mohabbat Khan mosque that had been desecrated by the Sikhs.[95] British suzerainty over regions west of Peshawar was cemented in 1893 by Sir Mortimer Durand, foreign secretary of the British Indian government, who collaboratively demarcated the border between British controlled territories in India and Afghanistan.
Communal riots broke out in the old city of Peshawar during the spring of 1910, when the annual Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat, the annual Muslim day of mourning, resulting in a considerable loss of life along with hundreds of looted businesses and injuries.[a][102] A month prior, in February 1910, prominent community religious leaders met with officials and agreed that Holi would be solely celebrated in predominantly Hindu neighbourhoods of the city, notably in Andar Shehr and Karim Pura.[b] On 21 March 1910, however, rumors of musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Haripur being brought into the city for Holi celebrations, led to a group of individuals who were marking Barawafat into forming a mob with the intention of stopping the procession.[c] Despite Muslim and Hindu community leaders calling for calm, both parties ultimately clashed at the Asamai Gate, when the Holi procession was en route to Dargah Pir Ratan Nath Jee, with a Hindu procession member stabbing a Muslim individual in the mob.[d]Riots ensued for the following three days, involved individuals from outlying tribal regions who had entered the city, with a mob at Bara Bazar allegedly chanting "Maro Hindu Ko" (Kill the Hindus).[e] Estimates detail the riots resulted in a total of 451 damaged shops and homes, primarily belonging to members of the Hindu community, while at least 4 Muslims and 6 Hindus were killed, alongside hundreds of injuries.[102]
Edwardes College was built during the British-era, and is now one of Peshawar's most prestigious educational institutions.
Peshawar emerged as a centre for both Hindkowan and Pashtun intellectuals during the British era. Hindko speakers, also referred to as xāryān ("city dwellers" in Pashto), were responsible for the dominant culture for most of the time that Peshawar was under British rule.[103] Peshawar was also home to a non-violent resistance movement led by Ghaffar Khan, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi. In April 1930, Khan, leading a large group of his followers, protested in Qissa Khwani Bazaar against discriminatory laws that had been enacted by the colonial government; hundreds were killed when a detachment of the British Indian Armyopened fire on the demonstrators.[104]
Modern era
In 1947, Peshawar became part of the newly created state of Pakistan, and emerged as a cultural centre in the country's northwest. The partition of India saw the departure of many Hindko-speaking Hindus and Sikhs who held key positions in the economy of Peshawar.[105][106] The University of Peshawar was established in the city in 1950, and augmented by the amalgamation of nearby British-era institutions into the university.[107] Until the mid-1950s, Peshawar was enclosed within a city wall and sixteen gates. In the 1960s, Peshawar was a base for a CIA operation to spy on the Soviet Union, with the 1960 U-2 incident resulting in an aircraft shot down by the Soviets that flew from Peshawar. From the 1960s until the late 1970s, Peshawar was a major stop on the famous Hippie trail.[108]
During the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1980s, Peshawar served as a political centre for the CIA and the Inter-Services Intelligence-trained mujahideen groups based in the camps of Afghan refugees. It also served as the primary destination for large numbers of Afghan refugees. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,[109] with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.[109] The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[110] and drastically altered the city's demography.[110]
Like much of northwest Pakistan, Peshawar has been severely affected by violence from the attacks by the terrorist group, Tehrik-i-Taliban. Local poets' shrines have been targeted by the Pakistani Taliban,[111] a suicide bombattack targeted the historic All Saints Church in 2013, and most notably the 2014 Peshawar school massacre in which Taliban militants killed 132 school children. Peshawar suffered 111 acts of terror in 2010,[112] which had declined to 18 in 2014,[112] before the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb, which further reduced acts of violence throughout Pakistan. A large attack on a Shiite mosque in the city killed dozens and injured 200 people on 4 March 2022. In January 2023, another terrorist attack occurred at Peshawar in which 100 people were killed.[113]
Geography
The city serves as a gateway to the Khyber Pass, whose beginning is marked by the Khyber Gate.
Topography
Peshawar sits at the eastern end of the Khyber Pass, which has been used as a trade route since the Kushan era approximately 2,000 years ago.
Peshawar is located in the broad Valley of Peshawar, which is surrounded by mountain ranges on three sides, with the fourth opening to the Punjab plains. The city is located in the generally level base of the valley, known as the Gandhara Plains.[54]
With an influence from the local steppe climate, Peshawar features a hot semi-arid climate (KöppenBSh), with very hot, prolonged summers and brief, mild to cool winters. Winter in Peshawar starts in November and ends in late March, though it sometimes extends into mid-April, while the summer months are from mid-May to mid-September. The mean maximum summer temperature surpasses 40 °C (104 °F) during the hottest month, and the mean minimum temperature is 25 °C (77 °F). The mean minimum temperature during the coolest month is 4 °C (39 °F), while the maximum is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F).
Peshawar is not a monsoon region, unlike other parts of Pakistan; however, rainfall occurs in both winter and summer. Due to western disturbances, the winter rainfall shows a higher record between the months of February and April. The highest amount of winter rainfall, measuring 236 mm (9.3 in), was recorded in February 2007,[114] while the highest summer rainfall of 402 mm (15.8 in) was recorded in July 2010;[115] during this month, a record-breaking rainfall level of 274 mm (10.8 in) fell within a 24-hour period on 29 July 2010[115]—the previous record was 187 mm (7.4 in) of rain, recorded in April 2009.[114] The average winter rainfall levels are higher than those of summer. Based on a 30-year record, the average annual precipitation level was recorded as 400 mm (16 in) and the highest annual rainfall level of 904.5 mm (35.61 in) was recorded in 2003.[114] Wind speeds vary during the year, from 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h) in December to 24 kn (28 mph; 44 km/h) in June. The relative humidity varies from 46% in June to 76% in August. The highest temperature of 50 °C (122 °F) was recorded on 18 June 1995,[114] while the lowest −3.9 °C (25.0 °F) occurred on 7 January 1970.[114]
Peshawar's urban typology is similar to other ancient cities in South Asia, such as Lahore, Multan and Delhi – all of which were founded near a major river, and included an old walled city, as well as a royal citadel.[118]
Historically, the old city of Peshawar was a heavily guarded citadel that consisted of high walls. In the 21st century, only remnants of the walls remain, but the houses and havelis continue to be structures of significance. Most of the houses are constructed of unbaked bricks, with the incorporation of wooden structures for protection against earthquakes, with many composed of wooden doors and latticed wooden balconies. Numerous examples of the city's old architecture can still be seen in areas such as Sethi Mohallah. In the old city, located in inner-Peshawar, many historic monuments and bazaars exist in the 21st century, including the Mohabbat Khan Mosque, Kotla Mohsin Khan, Chowk Yadgar and the Qissa Khawani Bazaar. Due to the damage caused by rapid growth and development, the old walled city has been identified as an area that urgently requires restoration and protection.[citation needed]
The walled city was surrounded by several main gates that served as the main entry points into the city — in January 2012, an announcement was made that the government plans to address the damage that has left the gates largely non-existent over time, with all of the gates targeted for restoration.[119]
The population of Peshawar district in 1998 was 2,026,851.[129] The city's annual growth rate is estimated at 3.29% per year,[130] and the 2016 population of Peshawar district is estimated to be 3,405,414.[131] With a population of 1,970,042 according to the 2017 census, Peshawar is the sixth-largest city of Pakistan.[132] and the largest city in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, with a population five times higher than the second-largest city in the province.
Afghan refugees
Peshawar has hosted Afghan refugees since the start of the Afghan civil war in 1978, though the rate of migration drastically increased following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. By 1980, 100,000 refugees a month were entering the province,[109] with 25% of all refugees living in Peshawar district in 1981.[109] The arrival of large numbers of Afghan refugees strained Peshawar's infrastructure,[110] and drastically altered the city's demography.[110] During the 1988 national elections, an estimated 100,000 Afghans refugees were illegally registered to vote in Peshawar.[133]
With the influx of Afghan refugees into Peshawar, the city became a hub for Afghan musicians and artists,[134] as well as a major centre of Pashto literature.[135] Some Afghan refugees have established successful businesses in Peshawar, and play an important role in the city's economy.[136]
In recent years, Peshawar district hosts up to 20% of all Afghan refugees in Pakistan.[109] In 2005, Peshawar district was home to 611,501 Afghan refugees — who constituted 19.7% of the district's total population.[109] Peshawar's immediate environs were home to large Afghan refugee camps, with Jalozai camp hosting up to 300,000 refugees in 2001[137] – making it the largest refugee camp in Asia at the time.[137] In 2012, it was estimated that Afghans constituted 28% of the city's total population, and that the numbers could be higher.[138]
Afghan refugees began to be frequently accused of involvement with terrorist attacks that occurred during Pakistan's war against radical Islamists.[139] By 2015 the Pakistani government adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees, including many who had spent their entire life in Pakistan.[139] The policy of repatriation was also encouraged by the government of Afghanistan,[140] though many refugees had not registered themselves in Pakistan. Unregistered refugees returning to Afghanistan without their old Afghan identification documents now have no official status in Afghanistan either.[140]
The primary native language spoken in Peshawar is Pashto, while Hindko is native minority language,[143] though English is used in the city's educational institutions, while Urdu is understood throughout the city – as the national language of the country.[144]
The district of Peshawar is overwhelmingly Pashto-speaking, though the Hindko-speaking minority is concentrated in Peshawar's old city,[145] Hindko speakers in Peshawar increasingly assimilate elements of Pashto and Urdu into their speech.[146]
Religion
Peshawar is overwhelmingly Muslim, with Muslims making up 98.5% of the city's population in the 1998 census.[147] Christians make up the second largest religious group with around 20,000 adherents, while over 7,000 members of the Ahmadiyya Community live in Peshawar.[147]Hindus and Sikhs are also found in the city − though most of the city's Hindu and Sikh community migrated en masse to India following the Partition of British India in 1947.
Though the city's Sikh population drastically declined after Partition, the Sikh community has been bolstered in Peshawar by the arrival of approximately 4,000 Sikh refugees from conflict in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas;[148] In 2008, the largest Sikh population in Pakistan was located in Peshawar.[149] Sikhs in Peshawar self-identify as Pashtuns and speak Pashto as their mother tongue.[150] There was a small, but, thriving Jewish community until the late 1940s. After the partition and the emergence of the State of Israel, Jews left for Israel.[151]
City Center Road is the major trade zone in Peshawar.
Peshawar's economic importance has historically been linked to its privileged position at the entrance to the Khyber Pass – the ancient travel route by which most trade between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent passed. Peshawar's economy also benefited from tourism in the mid-20th century, as the city formed a crucial part of the Hippie trail.
Peshawar's estimated monthly per capita income was ₨55,246 in 2015,[112] compared to ₨117,924 in Islamabad,[112] and ₨66,359 in Karachi.[112] Peshawar's surrounding region is also relatively poor − Khyber Pakhtunkhwa's cities on average have an urban per capita income that is 20% less than Pakistan's national average for urban residents.[112]
Peshawar was noted by the World Bank in 2014 to be at the helm of a nationwide movement to create an ecosystem for entrepreneurship, freelance jobs, and technology.[156] The city has been host to the World Bank assisted Digital Youth SummitArchived 7 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine — an annual event to connect the city and province's youths to opportunities in the digital economy. The 2017 event hosted 100 speakers including several international speakers, and approximately 3,000 delegates in attendance.[157]
Industry
Peshawar's Industrial Estate on Jamrud Road is an industrial zone established in the 1960s on 868 acres. The industrial estate hosts furniture, marble industries, and food processing industries, though many of its plots remain underutilized.[158] The Hayatabad Industrial Estate hosts 646 industrial units in Peshawar's western suburbs, though several of the units are no longer in use.[159] As part of the China Pakistan Economic Corridor, 4 special economic zones are to be established in the province, with roads, electricity, gas, water, and security to be provided by the government.[159] The nearby Hattar SEZ is envisioned to provide employment to 30,000 people,[159] and is being developed at a cost of approximately $200 million with completion expected in 2017.[159]
Employment
As a result of large numbers of displaced persons in the city, only 12% of Peshawar's residents were employed in the formalized economy in 2012.[136] Approximately 41% of residents in 2012 were employed in personal services,[136] while 55% of Afghan refugees in the city in 2012 were daily wage earners.[136] By 2016, Pakistan adopted a policy to repatriate Afghan refugees.
Wages for unskilled workers in Peshawar grew on average 9.1% per year between 2002 and 2008.[112] Following the outbreak of widespread Islamist violence in 2007, wages rose only 1.5% between 2008 and 2014.[112] Real wages dropped for some skilled craftsmen during the period between 2008 and 2014.[112]
Constraints
Peshawar's economy has been negatively impacted by political instability since 1979 resulting from the War in Afghanistan and subsequent strain on Peshawar's infrastructure from the influx of refugees.[136] The poor security environment resulting from Islamist violence also impacted the city's economy. With the launch of Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014, the country's security environment has drastically improved.[160]
The metropolitan economy suffers from poor infrastructure. The city's economy has also been adversely impacted by shortages of electricity and natural gas.[161] The $54 billion China Pakistan Economic Corridor will generate over 10,000 MW by 2018[162] – greater than the current electricity deficit of approximately 4,500 MW.[163] Peshawar will also be linked to ports in Karachi by uninterrupted motorway access, while passenger and freight railway tracks will be upgraded between Peshawar and Karachi.[citation needed]
Poor transportation is estimated to cause a loss of 4–6% of the Pakistani GDP.[164] Peshawar for decades has suffered from chaotic, mismanaged, and inadequate public transportation and the poor public transportation also has been detrimental to the city's economy.[165] Therefore, the government has since a new rapid bus service called BRT Peshawar covering the entire Peshawar. BRT Peshawar is now believed to be one the most advanced BRT of Pakistan[166]
Transportation
Road
New flyovers, such as this one near the suburb of Hayatabad, have been constructed in recent years to improve traffic flow.
Peshawar's east–west growth axis is centred on the historic Grand Trunk Road that connects Peshawar to Islamabad and Lahore. The road is roughly paralleled by the M-1 Motorway between Peshawar and Islamabad, while the M-2 Motorway provides an alternate route to Lahore from Islamabad. The Grand Trunk Road also provides access to the Afghan border via the Khyber Pass, with onwards connections to Kabul and Central Asia via the Salang Pass.
Peshawar is to be completely encircled by the Peshawar Ring Road in order to divert traffic away from the city's congested centre. The road is currently under construction, with some portions open to traffic.
The Karakoram Highway provides access between the Peshawar region and western China, and an alternate route to Central Asia via Kashgar in the Chinese region of Xinjiang.
The Indus Highway provides access to points south of Peshawar, with a terminus in the southern port city of Karachi via Dera Ismail Khan and northern Sindh. The 1.9 km (1.2 mi) Kohat Tunnel south of Peshawar provides access to the city of Kohat along the Indus Highway.
Motorways
Peshawar is connected to Islamabad and Rawalpindi by the 155 kilometre long M-1 Motorway. The motorway also links Peshawar to major cities in the province, such as Charsadda and Mardan. The M-1 motorway continues onwards to Lahore as part of the M-2 motorway.
The Hazara Motorway is being constructed as part of CPEC, and is providing control-access motorway travel all the way to Mansehra and Thakot via the M-1 and Hazara Motorways.
The entire Main Line-1 railway track between Karachi and Peshawar is to be overhauled at a cost of $3.65 billion for the first phase of the project,[167] with completion by 2021.[168] Upgrading the railway line will permit train travel at speeds of 160 kilometres per hour, versus the average 60 to 105 km/h (37 to 65 mph) speed currently possible on existing tracks.[169]
Peshawar was also once the terminus of the Khyber train safari, a tourist-oriented train that provided rail access to Landi Kotal. The service was discontinued as the security situation west of Peshawar deteriorated with the beginning of the region's Taliban insurgency.
BRT Peshawar is a modern & third generation rapid bus service of Peshawar, which has started its service on 13 August 2020.[171] It has 30 stations and 244 buses, which covers area from Chamkani to Karkhano Market. BRT Peshawar has replaced Peshawar's old, chaotic, dilapidated, and inadequate transportation system. The system has 30 stations and is mostly at grade, with four kilometres of elevated sections.[172] The system also contains 3.5 kilometres of underpasses.[172] BRT Peshawar is also complemented by a feeder system, with an additional 100 stations along those feeder lines.[166]
Pakistan has one of the most advanced Metro (BRT) systems.
Intercity bus
Peshawar is well-served by private buses (locally referred to as "flying coaches") and vans that offer frequent connections to throughout Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, as well as all major cities of Pakistan. The city's Daewoo Express bus terminal is located along the G.T. Road adjacent to the departure points for several other transportation companies.[173]
Administration
Civic government
This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2017)
Politics
Peshawar has historically served as the political centre of the region, and is currently the capital city of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province. The city and province have been historically regarded to be strongholds of the Awami National Party – a secular left-wing and moderate-nationalist party.[174][175] The Pakistan Peoples Party had also enjoyed considerable support in the province due to its socialist agenda.[174]
Despite being a centre for leftist politics in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar is still generally known throughout Pakistan for its social conservatism.[176] Sunni Muslims in the city are regarded to be socially conservative,[176] while the city's Shia population is considered to be more socially liberal.[176]
A plurality of voters in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, of which Peshawar is the capital, elected one of Pakistan's only religiously based provincial governments during the period of military dictatorship of Pervez Musharraf. A ground-swell of anti-American sentiment after the 2001 United States invasion of Afghanistan contributed to the Islamist coalition's victory.[177]
The Islamists introduced a range of social restrictions following the election of the Islamist Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal coalition in 2002, though Islamic Shariah law was never fully enacted.[177] Restrictions on public musical performances were introduced, as well as a ban prohibiting music to be played in any public places, including on public transportation – which lead to the creation of a thriving underground music scene in Peshawar.[178] In 2005, the coalition successfully passed the "Prohibition of Use of Women in Photograph Bill, 2005,"[179] leading to the removal of all public advertisements in Peshawar that featured women.[180]
The religious coalition was swept out of power by the secular and leftist Awami National Party in elections after the fall of Musharraf in 2008,[177] leading to the removal of the MMA's socially conservative laws.[181] 62% of eligible voters voted in the election.[112] The Awami National Party was targeted by Taliban militants, with hundreds of its members having been assassinated by the Pakistani Taliban.[182]
In 2013, the centrist Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf was elected to power in the province on an anti-corruption platform. Peshawar city recorded a voter turnout of 80% for the 2013 elections.[112]
Municipal services
86% of Peshawar's households have access to municipal piped water as of 2015,[112] though 39% of Peshawar's households purchase water from private companies in 2015.[112]
42% of Peshawar households are connected to municipal sewerage as of 2015.[112]
Culture
Music
After the 2002 Islamist government implemented restrictions on public musical performances, a thriving underground music scene took root in Peshawar.[178] After the start of Pakistani's Taliban insurgency in 2007–2008, militants began targeting members of Peshawar's cultural establishment. By 2007, Taliban militants began a widespread campaign of bombings against music and video shops across the Peshawar region, leading to the closure of many others.[183] In 2009, Pashto musical artist Ayman Udas was assassinated by Taliban militants on the city's outskirts. In June 2012, a Pashto singer, Ghazala Javed, and her father were killed in Peshawar, after they had fled rural Khyber Pakhtunkhwa for the relative security of Peshawar.[184]
Musicians began to return to the city by 2016,[185] with a security environment greatly improved following the Operation Zarb-e-Azb in 2014 to eradicate militancy in the country. In 2016, the provincial government announced a monthly income of $300 to 500 musicians in order to help support their work,[185] as well as a $5 million fund to "revive the rich cultural heritage of the province".[185]
Peshawar Museum
Museums
The Peshawar Museum was founded in 1907 in memory of Queen Victoria. The building features an amalgamation of British, South Asian, Hindu, Buddhist and Mughal Islamic architectural styles. The museum's collection has almost 14,000 items, and is well known for its collection of Greco-Buddhist art. The museum's ancient collection features pieces from the Gandharan, Kushan, Parthian, and Indo-Scythian periods.
Numerous educational institutes — schools, colleges and universities — are located in Peshawar. 21.6% of children between the ages of 5 and 9 were not enrolled in any school in 2013,[112] while 16.6% of children in the 10 to 14 age range were out of school.[112]
Apart from good range of universities, Peshawar has host of high quality further education (Post School) educational institutes. The most renowned are, Edwardes College founded in 1900 by Herbert Edwardes, is the oldest college in the province and Islamia College Peshawar, which was established in 1913. Islamia College became university and named as Islamia College University in 2008.[203]
The following is a list of some of the public and private universities and colleges in Peshawar:
There are hosts of sporting facilities in Peshawar. The most renowned are Arbab Niaz Stadium,[207] and Hayatabad Cricket Stadium, which are the International cricket grounds of Peshawar and Qayyum Stadium,[208][209] which is the multi sports facilities located in Peshawar Cantonment.
In 1975, the first sports complex, Qayyum Stadium was built in Peshawar[209] while Hayatabad Sports Complex was built in the early 1990s.[214] Both Qayyum Stadium and Hayatabad Sports Complexes are multiple sports complexes with facilities for all major indoor and outdoor sports such as football,[215]Field Hockey ground,[216]Squash, Swimming, Gymnasium, Board Games section, Wrestling, Boxing and Badminton. In 1991, Qayyum Stadium hosted Barcelona Olympics Qualifier Football match between Pakistan and Qatar[215] plus it also hosted National Games in 2010.[217]Hockey and squash are also popular in Peshawar.
^"The date of the Hindu festival of Holi coincided with Barawafat, the Musalman day of mourning, in 1910, which led to a very serious riot between the Hindus and Musalmans of the Peshawar City resulting in a considerable loss of life. There was a wholescale plunder of Hindu houses and shops."[101]: 92–93
^"On 22nd February 1910, a meeting of leading Muslims and Hindu leaders was called by deputy commissioner of Peshawar at the Municipal Hall in which arrangements regarding the upcoming festivals were discussed and a committee was established consisting of prominent leaders from both sides. It was decided in the meeting that the Holi should be celebrated quietly until the 25th March. There should be only two processions, namely from the Hindu quarter of Andar Shahr to that of Karimpura and vice-versa. The Muslim of the city should not join the procession and the troops should celebrate Holi in their lines and some leading men from both sides will supervise the arrangement at Hasting Memorial and other at Clock Tower."[102]: 23–24
^On 21 March the Deputy Commissioner was informed by deputy superintendent of police Zain ul Abidin that the situation in the city is not good as Hindu brought some musicians from Amritsar and a dancing boy from Hari Pur and they are intending to lead the procession on an unauthorized route. The superintendent of police suggested the deputy commissioner that the Holi should not be allowed as the situations going to create clash. Mr. Blackway sent some Hindu leader to enquire the situation. These Hindu gentlemen assured the deputy commissioner that the situation is friendly and nothing bad is going to be happened. There is no musician with the Holi and it would follow the old route. At the same time some Muslim leaders reported to the deputy commissioner about the Muslim mob who intended to stop the Holi procession. They also suggested that Holi procession should be stopped to avoid an expected clash between the two communities. However, after the surety of the Hindu leaders that there are no musicians and dancing boys and that the procession is not going on an unauthorized route the deputy commissioner was stuck to follow his old plan. This was the point which was misunderstood and created communal violence in the city.[102]: 24
^Around 8 pm when the Holi procession at Asa Mai gate was about to depart on the route to Pir Rathan Nath Dharamshala sub inspector Kanhya Lal who was posted at Chita Khuo informed the police head quarter that a mob of Muslim also assembled to stop it and the two mobs started abusing each other. Leaders from both sides tried to control the situation but the people from both sides refused to pay any heed to their leaders. Meanwhile, a Hindu Mahr Singh stabbed a Muslim with knife. Mahr Singh was chased by the mob and captured him at Bara Bazar. At the same time two Muslims Jani and Ahmad were killed by Hindu with knives. Police report for 21 March 1911, provides that two Muslim were killed and three wounded while from Hindu side two people were killed and eleven were wounded and eleven shops were broken.[102]: 24
^When the funeral party was ousted from the city a riffraff of Muslim consisting of people from trans-border areas and Afghanistan remained in the city that started plundering and broke 285 shops. A violent clash was started in which two Hindus and one Muslim was killed... The next day on 23 March the looting of shops started again. The first case was reported in Ramdas Bazar where the Muslim despite the Military and Police patrolling looted the Hindu shops. A Hindu, reader of Nawab of Landi fired and wounded two Muslim. The local Hindu during investigation denied the fact but Military intelligence reported that he fired and wounded two people. He was arrested and sent on trial under India Penal Code. Two Hindu were killed at Ram Das Bazar. It was also reported that in Mewa Mandi a mob of Afridi and Mohmand tribes started plundering and looted many shops. People from tribal areas were also involved in this looting. 11 shops were broken in Ram Das Bazar that day... The official records about the events of the day had self-contradictory statements. The starting paragraphs of police and commissioner reports claims that everything was good at the start of the day but after a while the situation was out of control in the whole city. For instance, police reports provides that around 10:00 am, in Karimpura a police constable Chettan Ram was struck on head and the mob at Bara Bazar started the slogan "Maro Hindu Ko".[102]: 25
^1891–1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Peshawar, which included Peshawar Municipality and Peshawar Cantonment.[120]: 19
^1868–1941: Data for the entirety of the town of Peshawar, which included Peshawar Municipality and Peshawar Cantonment.[120]: 19
^Baloch, Sikandar Khan (2004). In the Wonderland of Asia, Gilgit & Baltistan. Sang-e-Meel Publications. p. 124. ISBN9789693516142. Within the next decade, emerged the great kingdom of Gandhra under the great Kushan king Kaniskha (125-160 AD). The seat of his central government was Purushpura which is today known as Peshawar.
^Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 148. ISBN9788126900275. Kanishka's coins have been found as far as Ghaznipur and Gorakhpur. These point to the wide extent of his Indian dominion which stretched from Gandhara to Banaras. The eastern portion of this empire was governed by Mahakshatrapa and a Kshatrapa while the northern portion by military governors. He fixed his capital at Purushpura or Peshawar which he adorned with many noble buildings.
^The Listener, Volume 39. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1948. p. 27. Of course the Kushan capital established by Kanishka in India was at Purushpura — Peshawar — not Mathura, where the Saka satraps had held sway and probably continued under the overlordship of the Kushans.
^ abHiro, Dilip (2012). Apocalyptic Realm: Jihadists in South Asia. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-17378-9. Of the sixteen gates of the historic walled city of Peshawar (derivative of Purushapura, meaning "town of men" in Sanskrit), the best known is the Kabuli Gate.
^Jones, Barry (2019). Dictionary of World Biography: Sixth edition. ANU Press. p. 469. ISBN978-1-76046-287-1. His empire extended to Afghanistan, parts of Iran and northern India-Pakistan, and his capital Purushpura is the modern Peshawar, where he built an enormous stupa. He sent Buddhist missionaries to China.
^ abJaffar, S. M. (1952). An Introduction to Peshawar. S.M.S. Khan. The old name Purushapura is said to have been derived from Purush, a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been.
^The North-West Frontier Province Year Book. Government of Pakistan. 1954. p. 47. The old name Purushpura is said to have been derived from Purush, after a Raja whose seat of government it is stated to have been.
^Cotton, James Sutherland; Burn, Sir Richard; Meyer, Sir William Stevenson (1909). Imperial Gazetteer of India. Clarendon Press. p. 463. Purushapura, seat of king Purush, Peshawar probably derived from, xx. 124.
^Bulletin of the Asia Institute, Volume 7. Wayne State University Press. 1994. p. 55. As the Fu-lou-sha of Fa-hsien is also identifiable as Peshawar, the fifth-century Chinese transcription of Purushapura can clearly be equated with the seventh-century Pu-lu-sha, the equivalent syllables for pu-lo, representing the Sanskrit pura ...
^"Ancient Peshawar:Historical Review of Some of its Socio-Religious and Cultural Aspects". asc-centralasia.edu.pk. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 19 July 2019. The famous Muslim historian and geographer al-Masudi (871–957 AD), also known as the 'Herodotus of the Arabs' for he wrote a 30-volume history of the world, spelt Peshawar as Pershadwar. Purshawar or Purushavar: Abu Rayhan Al-Biruni (973–1048 AD), the Arab geographer and historian records two variants for Peshawar; Purshawar and Purushavar.
^Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1995). Peshawar: Historic City of the Frontier. Sang-e-Meel Publications. ISBN9789693505542. Peshawar has long been known as "the Fountier—town." Standing right at the mout of the world-famous Khyber Pass, it holds the key to the gateway of the subcontinent of Pakistan and India.
^Rishi, Weer Rajendra (1982). India & Russia: Linguistic & Cultural Affinity. Roma Publications. The capital of Kushan Empire was Purushpura, the modern Peshawar.
^Heitzman, James (2008). The City in South Asia. Routledge. ISBN978-1-134-28962-2. Taxila long played the role of the eastern capital, in the region known as Gandhara, alongside the region's western capital Pushkaravati or Charsadda, which attracted traders along the northern bank of the Khyber River until its eclipse by the city of Purushapura (later Peshawar) established by the second century CE (Deloche 1993, 1: 31–2).
^Sandhu, Gurcharn Singh (2000). A military history of ancient India. Vision Books. p. 24.
^Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 122. ISBN9788120804364. Unlike Wema Kadphises, whose relationship with Kanishka is not yet known, Kanishka ruled his Indian territories in person and selected Purushapura as his capital.
^ abA. D. H. Bivar, "The History of Eastern Iran", in Ehsan Yarshater (ed.), The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol.3 (1), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, London, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p.197.
^Pandey, Mithila Sharan (1963). The Historical Geography and Topography of Bihar. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 198. Under the Mauryas, when Pataliputra was the capital of the whole empire, a road ran from Tamralipti, which was probably then on or very near the coast, to Purushapura in the north-west.
^ abElisseeff, Vadime (1998). The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce. Berghahn Books. ISBN978-1-57181-222-3.
^Abrams, Harry N. (2000). The Year One: Art of the Ancient World East and West. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 133. ISBN978-0-87099-961-1. The late-first—early-second-century-A.D. rule of Kanishka, the third Kushan emperor, was administered from two capitals, Purushapura (Peshawar), near the Khyber Pass, and Mathura, in northern India.
^Rosenberg, Matt; Tertius Chandler (2012). "Top 10 Cities of the Year 100". Education > Geography (sourced from Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census by Tertius Chandler. 1987, St. David's University Press). About.com. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
^Wink, Andre (2002). Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries. Brill. ISBN978-0-391-04173-8.
^Puri, Baij Nath (1987). Buddhism in Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN9788120803725.
^Wink, Andre (2002). Al-Hind: The Slavic Kings and the Islamic conquest, 11th–13th centuries. BRILL. ISBN978-0-391-04174-5.
^Heirman, Ann; Bumbacher, Stephan Peter (2007). The Spread of Buddhism. BRILL. ISBN9789047420064.
^ ab"Taareekh-e-Hazara" (Urdu) by Dr. Sher Bahadur Khan Panni_first edition_1969 p 295-313,"Taareekh-e-Wadi-e-Chhachh and Aqwaam-e-Chhachh" (Urdu) by Manzoor Awan p 175-182, "Afghanistan and its inhabitants" translation of Muhammad Hayat Khan's book by Henry B Priestley_1874 (reproduced by Sang-e-Meel Publications_Pakistan_1981) p-55/56, p- 197/198, "Da Pasto Qabeelo Shajre o Mene" (Pashto) by Muhammad Umar Rond Miakhel_2001 p 346-347
^Akbar Nama, trans. H. Beveridge, vol. 3, p. 715 quoted in Dani, Peshawar. p. 102. Whereas according to Nizam ai-Din Ahmad it was "on the [next day]" that Akbar sent Zain Khan Kukah "with a well equipped army against the Afghans of Sawad (Swat) and Bajaur, for the extirpation of those turbulent tubes," Khwajah Nizam al-Din Ahmad, The Tabaqat-i-Akbari: (A History of India from the early Musalman Invasions to the thirty-eight year of the reign of Akbar), vol. 2, trans, Brajendra Nath De. rev. and ed, Baini Prashad, low Price Publications, Delhi, 1992, p, 607.
^ abThe Cambridge History of India, Volume 3. CUP Archive. 1928.
^Ahmad, Hasan Dani (1999). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN9788120815407. Retrieved 29 March 2017
^ abcdeDani, Ahmad Hasan (2003). History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. UNESCO. ISBN9789231038761.
^ abMehta, Jaswant Lal (2005). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707–1813. New Dawn Press, Incorporated. pp. 236, 256, 260. ISBN978-1-932705-54-6. "The province of Multan and northwest frontier were also overrun by Marathas and the forts of Peshawar and Attock were garrisoned by their troops"
^ abcdRai, Jyoti; Singh, Patwant (2008). Empire of the Sikhs: The Life and Times of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Peter Owen Publishers. ISBN978-0-7206-1371-1.
^ abLee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 188. ISBN978-1-78914-010-1.
^ abcdJaved, Asghar (1999–2004). "History of Peshawar". National Fund for Cultural Heritage. Archived from the original on 27 February 2004. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
^Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 208. ISBN978-1-78914-010-1.
^Qaiser, Iqbal (2012). "Gurudwara Bhai Joga Singh at Peshawar". All About Sikhs – your Gateway to Sikhism. Gateway to Sikhism. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
^Papers in language and linguistics, Volume 1. Bahri Publications. 1986. p. 50. Essentially, what has occurred is an occupation by Pashto-speaking Pathans of key areas in the urban economy of the province which before 1947 were traditionally exercised by Hindko- speaking Hindus and Sikhs.
^The rise and development of Urdu and the importance of regional languages in Pakistan. Christian Study Centre. p. 38. Shackle suggests Hindko simply means "Indian language' and describes it as a "collective label for the variety of Indo-Aryan dialects either alongside or in vicinity of Pushto in the northwest of the country'. Hindko is the most significant linguistic minority in the NWFP, represented in nearly one-fifth (18.7%) of the province's total households. ... The Influence of Pushto on Hazara appears to have become more pronounced, due in part to an Influx of Pashtuns replacing the Hindko-speaking Sikhs and Hindus who formerly held key trading positions and who departed at independence.
^ abcde"Peshawar Climate Data". PakMet. Climate Data Processing Centre (CDPC), Pakistan Meteorological Department, Karachi. Archived from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^ ab"RAINFALL STATEMENT JULY-2010". PakMet. Climate data Processing Centre (CDPC), Pakistan Meteorological Department, Karachi. Archived from the original on 20 August 2010. Retrieved 26 June 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
^"Peshawar Climate Normals 1991–2020". World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 17 September 2023.
^Lorch, Donatella (16 November 1988). "Pakistan Restricts Afghan. Refugees". The New York Times. The New York Times Company. Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
^Alimia, Sanaa (2022). Refugee cities: how Afghans changed urban Pakistan. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 88. ISBN978-1-5128-2279-3.
^IBP, Inc. (1 June 2015). Pakistan: Doing Business and Investing in Pakistan: Strategic, Practical Information, Regulations, Contacts. Lulu. ISBN978-1-5145-2747-4.
^"Transport policy: need of the day". Dawn. 13 February 2017. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 7 April 2017. "Inefficiencies in the performance of the transport sector costs Pakistan's economy 4-6pc of GDP", said Werner E. Liepach, ADB Country Director.
^Ahmad, Imtiaz (10 June 2016). "Pakistan to get Chinese funds for upgrading rail links, building pipeline". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 11 August 2020. Retrieved 9 August 2016. The project is planned to be completed in two phases in five years by 2021. The first phase will be completed by December 2017 and the second by 2021.
^Rumi, Raza; Manzoor Ali (30 June 2012). "The Music Doesn't Stop in Peshawar". The Indian Express: Journalism of Courage. Archived from the original on 14 August 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2012.
Ahmad, Aisha and Boase, Roger. 2003. "Pashtun Tales from the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier: From the Pakistan-Afghan Frontier." Saqi Books (1 March 2003). ISBN0-86356-438-0.
Beal, Samuel. 1884. "Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang." 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.
Beal, Samuel. 1911. "The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing". Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.
Dobbins, K. Walton. 1971. "The Stūpa and Vihāra of Kanishka I". The Asiatic Society of Bengal Monograph Series, Vol. XVIII. Calcutta.
Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 1815. "An account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India; comprising a view of the Afghaun nation." Akadem. Druck- u. Verlagsanst (1969).
Foucher, M. A. 1901. "Notes sur la geographie ancienne du Gandhâra (commentaire à un chaptaire de Hiuen-Tsang)." BEFEO No. 4, Oct. 1901, pp. 322–369.
Hargreaves, H. (1910–11): "Excavations at Shāh-jī-kī Dhērī"; Archaeological Survey of India, 1910–11, pp. 25–32.
Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. "Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825", Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
Reeves, Richard. 1985. "Passage to Peshawar: Pakistan: Between the Hindu Kush and the Arabian Sea." Holiday House September 1985. ISBN0-671-60539-9.
Imran, Imran Rashid. 2006. "Baghaat-i-Peshawar." Sarhad Conservation Network. July 2006.
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