David Gray不同意廣泛的概括,並指出定義怛特羅是一項艱鉅的任務,因為“怛特羅傳統是多種多樣的,跨越多個宗教傳統和文化世界。因此它們也是多樣的,這使得提出一個適當的定義非常困難”。 定義怛特羅的挑戰更加複雜,因為它一直是主要印度宗教的歷史重要組成部分,包括南亞和東亞內外的佛教、印度教和耆那教。對它的實踐者來說,密宗被定義為文本、技術、儀式、修道院實踐、冥想、瑜伽和意識形態的結合。[1]
怛特羅文獻的主要元素之一是儀式。[13]怛特羅不是一個連貫的系統,而是來自不同來源的實踐和思想的積累。正如 Samuel 所寫,密宗傳統是“各種不同因素和組成部分的匯合”。這些元素包括:曼荼羅、曼怛羅、內部雙身法實踐、兇猛的男性和女性神靈、火葬場象徵主義,以及來自印度哲學的概念。[14]
André Padoux 指出,對於哪些元素是怛特羅的特徵,學者們並未達成共識,也沒有任何文本包含所有這些元素。[8] 此外,大多數這些元素也可以在非怛特羅傳統中找到。[8] 由於該術語涵蓋的社群範圍廣泛,因此明確描述怛特羅實踐是有問題的。然而,有許多怛特羅傳統共有的修行和元素,因此可以在它們之間建立家族相似關係。
不同的學者給出了不同的怛特羅主要特徵。例如,David N. Lorenzen寫道,怛特羅共享各種“薩滿教和瑜伽”實踐、女神崇拜、與考拉斯(Kaulas)和嘎巴利卡等特定宗派的聯繫,以及怛特羅文本。[8] 與此同時,Christopher Wallis 根據怛特羅學者Rāmakaṇṭha的定義,給出了怛特羅的四個主要特徵:關注(對環境或個人意識的)操縱的儀式模式;對深奧啟蒙的要求(接受接觸經文的教義和實踐);實踐的雙重目標:解脫的救世論和超世間的目標(各種構想)和/或世俗的目標,即對其他眾生和一個人的環境具有非凡的力量;以及聲稱這三者在經典中得到解釋,即神(梵語羅馬化:āgama)或佛陀的話語”。[15]
根據 Jacob Dalton 的說法,儀式化的雙身法(連同怛特羅啟蒙儀式中的性元素,如性液的消耗)首先出現在名為Mahayoga tantras(包括Guhyagarbha和密集金剛)的佛教著作中。[17] 這些文本“著重於身體的內部,男性和女性性器官的解剖學細節以及通過性結合產生的快感”。在這些文本中,性能量也被視為一種強大的力量,可以用來進行精神實踐,根據 Samuel 的說法,“可能會創造一種幸福的狀態和個人身份的喪失,這與解放洞察力同源”。 這些雙身法繼續進一步發展成更複雜的系統,這些系統可在大約九世紀或十世紀的文本中找到,包括濕婆教之Kaulajnanirṇaya和Kubjikātantra以及佛教的歡喜金剛和勝樂金剛密續,它們利用陰間的象徵和兇猛女神。Samuel 寫道,這些後來的文本還將雙身法與控制細微身能量的系統結合起來。[14]
Ellen Gough 指出,耆那教的崇拜方法很可能受到性力派思想的影響,描繪蒂爾丹嘉拉的Rishi-mandala的怛特羅圖表證明了這一點。[31] 耆那教的怛特羅傳統使用口頭咒語或曼怛羅,以及被認為可以為重生領域積累功德的儀式。[32]
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